Full text of "Cyclopedia of architecture, carpentry and building; a general reference work.."

See other formats

LIBRARY OF

ARCHITECTURE AND

ALLIED ARTS

Gift of
ALFRED W. RfiA

DETAIL OF ROMAN DORIC ORDER.

An example of conventional shadows and rendering- in wash. Note the French

Method of rendering the quarter round moulding under cornice, and the

reflected shadows. See Section on "Rendering in Wash" Page '257.

Reproduced by permission of Columbia University.

Cyclopedia

Architecture, Carpentry
and Building

A General Reference Work

ON ARCHITECTURE, CARPENTRY, BUILDING, SUPERINTENDENCE,

CONTRACTS, SPECIFICATIONS, BUILDING LAW, STAIR-BUILDING,

ESTIMATING, MASONRY, REINFORCED CONCRETE, STEEL

CONSTRUCTION,. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING, SHEET

METAL WORK, HEATING, VENTILATING, ETC.

Prepared by a Staff of

ARCHITECTS, BUILDERS, AND EXPERTS OF THE HIGHEST
PROFESSIONAL STANDING

Illustrated with over Three Thousand Engravings

TEN VOLUMES

CHICAGO

AMERICAN TECHNICAL SOCIETY
1907

BY
AMERICAN SCHOOL OF CORRESPONDENCE

AMERICAN TECHNICAL SOCIETY

Entered at Stationers' Hall. London
All Rights Reserved.

Urban
WMO

Authors and Collaborators

JAMES C. PLANT

Superintendent of Computing Division. Office of Supervising Architect. Treasury.
Washington, D. C.

WALTER LORING WEBB, C. E.

Consulting Civil Engineer.

Author of "Railroad Construction," " Economics of Railroad Construction." etc.

J. R. COOLIDGE, JR., A. M.

Architect, Boston.

President, Boston Society of Architects.

Acting Director, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.

H. V. VON HOLST, A. B., S. B.

Architect, Chicago.

«r»
FRED T. HODGSON

Architect and Editor.

Member of Ontario Association of Architects.

Author of "Modern Carpentry," "Architectural Drawing, Self -Taught," "The Steel
Square," "Modern Estimator," etc.

ALFRED E. ZAPF, S. B.

Secretary, American School of Correspondence.

AUSTIN T. BYRNE

Civil Engineer.

Author of " Highway Construction," " Materials and Workmanship.

HARRIS C. TROW, S. B.

Editor of Text-book Department, American School of Correspondence.
American Institute of Electrical Engineers.

WM. H. LAWRENCE, S. B.

Associate Professor of Architecture, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Authors and Collaborators — Continued

EDWARD NICHOLS

Architect, Boston.

*•

H. W. GARDNER, S. B.

Assistant Professor of Architecture, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

ALFRED E. PHILLIPS, C. E., Ph. D.

Professor of Civil Engineering, Armour Institute of Technology.

GEORGE C. SHAAD, E. E.

Assistant Professor of Electrical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

MORRIS WILLIAMS

Writer and Expert on Carpentry and Building.

HERBERT E. EVERETT

Department of Architecture, University of Pennsylvania.

E. L. WALLACE, B. S.

Instructor, American School of Correspondence.
American Institute of Electrical Engineers.

OTIS W. RICHARDSON, LL. B.

Of the Boston Bar.

*•

WM. G. SNOW, S. B.

Steam Heating Specialist.

Author of " Furnace Heating," Joint-Author of " Ventilation of Buildings,'

American Society of Mechanical Engineers.

W. HERBERT GIBSON, C. E.

Expert on Reinforced Concrete.

ELIOT N. JONES, LL. B.

Of the Boston Bar.

Authors and Collaborators— Continued

R. T. MILLER, JR., A. M., LL. B.

President, American School of Correspondence.

WM. NEUBECKER

Instructor. Sheet Metal Department of New York Trade SchooL

WM. BEALL GRAY

Sanitary Engineer.

Member of National Association of Master Plumbers.

EDWARD MAURER, B. C. E.

Professor of Mechanics. University of Wisconsin.

EDWARD A. TUCKER, S. B.

Architectural Engineer.

Member of American Society of Civil Engineers.

EDWARD B. WAITE V»

Head of Instruction Department, American School of Correspondence.
American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
Western Society of Engineers.

GEORGE R. METCALFE, M. E.

Head of Technical Publication Department, Westinghouse Elec. & Mfg. Co.

Formerly Technical Editor, Street Railway Review.

Formerly Editor of Text-book Department, American School of Correspondence.

HENRY M. HYDE V

Author and Editor "The Technical World Magazine.'

CHAS. L. HUBBARD, S. B., M. E. "*

Consulting Engineer.

With S. Homer Woodbridge Co., Heating, Ventilating and Sanitary Engineers.

Authors and Collaborators— Continued

FRANK CHOUTEAU BROWN

Architect, Boston.

Author of "Letters and Lettering."

DAVID A. GREGG

Teacher and Lecturer in Pen and Ink Rendering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

CHAS. B. BALL

Civil and Sanitary Engineer.
American Society of Civil Engineers.

ERVIN KENISON, S. B.

Instructor in Mechanical Drawing, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

H. C. GUSHING, JR.

Consulting Electrical Engineer.

Author ot" "Standard Wiring for Electric Light and Power."

JOHN H. JALLINGS

Mechanical Engineer.

FRANK A. BOURNE, S. M., A. A. I. A.

Architect, Boston.

Special Librarian, Department of Fine Arts, Public Library, Boston.

ALFRED S. JOHNSON, Ph. D.

Formerly Editor "The Technical World Magazine."

GILBERT TOWNSEND, S. B.

With Post & McCord, New York City.

HENRY C. BUCK, A. B., A. M.

Instructor, American School of Correspondence.
American Institute of Electrical Engineers.

Authorities Consulted

THE editors have freely consulted the standard technical literature
of America and Europe in the preparation of these volumes. They
desire to express their indebtedness particularly to the following
eminent authorities whose well-known works should be in the library of
every one connected with building.

Grateful acknowledgment is here made also for the invaluable co-
operation of the foremost architects, engineers, and builders in making
these volumes thoroughly representative of the very best and latest prac-
tice in the design and construction of buildings ; also for the valuable
drawings and data, suggestions, criticisms, and other courtesies.

J. B. JOHNSON, C. E.

Formerly Dean, College of Mechanics and Engineering, University of Wisconsin.

Author of "Engineering Contracts and Specifications," "Materials of Construction,"
Joint Author of "Theory and Practice in the Designing of Modern Framed Struc-
tures.

JOHN CASSAN WAIT, M. C. E., LL. B.

Counsellor-at-Law and Consulting Engineer ; Formerly Assistant Professor of En-
gineering at Harvard University.
Author of "Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence."

T. M. CLARK

Fellow of of the American Institute of Architects.

Author of "Building Superintendence," "Architect, Builder and Owner before the
• Law."

FRANK E. KIDDER, C. E., Ph. D.

Consulting Architect and Structural Engineer; Fellow of the American Institute of

Architects.
Author of "Architect's and Builder's Pocket-Book," "Building Construction and

Superintendence ; Part I, Masons' Work ; Part II, Carpenters' Work ; Part III.

Trussed Roofs and Roof Trusses." "Churches and Chapels."

AUSTIN T. BYRNE, C. E.

Civil Engineer.

Author of "Inspection of Materials and Workmanship Employed in Construction,'

" Highway Construction."

^x*

W. R. WARE

Formerly Professor of Architecture, Columbia University.
Author of " Modern Perspective."

Authorities Consulted— Continued

CLARENCE A. MARTIN

Professor of Architecture at Cornell University.
Author of " Details of Building Construction.1'

FRANK N. SNYDER

Architect.

Author of " Building Details."

CHARLES H. SNOW

Author of " The Principal Species of Wood, Their Characteristic Properties.

OWEN B. MAGINNIS

Author of " How to Frame a House, or House and Roof Framing."

HALBERT P. GILLETTE, C. E.

Author of " Handbook of Cost Data for Contractors and Engineers."

OLIVER COLEMAN

Author of "Successful Houses."

CHAS. E. GREENE, A. M., C. E.

Formerly Professor of Civil Engineering, University of Michigan.
Author of " Structural Mechanics."

LOUIS de C. BERG

Author of "Safe Building."

GAETANO LANZA, S. B., C. & M. E.

Professor of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Author of " Applied Mechanics."

IRA O. BAKER

Professor of Civil Engineering, University of Illinois.
Author of " A Treatise on Masonry Construction."

GEORGE P. MERRILL

Author of "Stones for Building and Decoration."

FREDERICK W. TAYLOR, M.E. and SANFORD E. THOMPSON, S. B.,C.E.

Joint Authors of " A Treatise on Concrete, Plain and Reinforced."

Authorities Consulted— Continued

A. W. BUEL and C. S. HILL

Joint Authors of " Reinforced Concrete."

*•

NEWTON HARRISON, E. E.

Author of "Electric Wiring, Diagrams and Switchboards."

^«

FRANCIS B. CROCKER, E. M., Ph. D.

Head of Department of Electrical Engineering, Columbia University ; Past President.

American Institute of Electrical Engineers.
Author of " Electric Lighting."

>»

J. R. CRAVATH and V. R. LANSINGH

Joint Authors of " Practical Illumination."

JOSEPH KENDALL FREITAG, B. S., C. E.

Author of " Architectural Engineering, " Fireproofing of Steel Buildings."

WILLIAM H. BIRKMIRE, C. E.

Author of " Planning and Construction of High Office Buildings," "Architectural Iron
and Steel, and Its Application in the Construction of Buildings," "Compound
Riveted Girders," "Skeleton Structures," etc,

EVERETT U. CROSBY and HENRY A. FISKE

Joint Authors of " Handbook of Fire Protection for Improved Risk."

CARNEGIE STEEL COMPANY

Authors of " Pocket Companion, Containing Useful Information and Tables Appertain-
ing to the Use of Steel."

J. C. TRAUTWINE, C. E.

Author of "Civil Engineers' Pocket Book."

ALPHA PIERCE JAMISON, M. E.

Assistant Professor of Mechanical Drawing, Purdue University.
Author of " Advanced Mechanical Drawing."

FRANK CHOUTEAU BROWN

Architect, Boston.

Author of " Letters and Lettering.

Authorities Consulted—Continued

HENRY McGOODWIN

Author of "Architectural Shades and Shadows."
«r«

VIGNOLA

Author of " The Five Orders of Architecture," American Editiori by Prof. Ware,

CHAS. D. MAGINNIS

Author of " Pen Drawing, An Illustrated Treatise."

FRANZ S. MEYER

Professor of the School of Industrial Art in Karlsruhe.
Author of " Handbook of Ornament," American Editiot

RUSSELL STURGIS

Author of "A Dictionary of Architecture and Building," and "How to Judge Archi-
tecture."

A. D. F. HAMLIN, A. M.

Professor of Architecture at Columbia University.
Author of " A Text-book of the History of Architecture."

RALPH ADAMS CRAM

Architect

Author of " Church Building."

C. H. MOORE

Author of " Development and Character of Gothic Architecture.'

ROLLA C. CARPENTER, C. E., M. M. E.

Professor of Experimental Engineering, Cornell University.
Author of " Heating and Ventilating Buildings."

^»

WILLIAM PAUL GERHARD

Author of " A Guide to Sanitary House Inspection."

I. J. COSGROVE

Author of " Principles and Practice of Plumbing."

For ewor d

HE rapid evolution of constructive methods in recent
years, as illustrated in the use of steel and concrete,
*• and the increased size and complexity of buildings,
has created the necessity for an authority which shall
embody accumulated experience and approved practice along a
variety of correlated lines. The Cyclopedia of Architecture,
Carpentry, and Building is designed to fill this acknowledged
need.

€L There is no industry that compares with Building in the
close interdependence of its subsidiary trades. The Architect,
for example, who knows nothing of Steel or Concrete con-
struction is to-day as much out of place on important work
as the Contractor who cannot make intelligent estimates, or who
understands nothing of his legal rights and responsibilities. A
carpenter must now know something of Masonry, Electric Wiring,
and, in fact, all other trades employed in the erection of a build-
ing ; and the same is true of all the craftsmen whose handiwork
will enter into the completed structure.

C. Neither pains nor expense have been spared to make the
present work the most comprehensive and authoritative on the
subject of Building and its allied industries. The aim has been,
noi merely to create a work which will appeal to the trained

expert, but one that will commend itself also to the beginner
and the self-taught, practical man by giving him a working
knowledge of the principles and methods, not only of his own
particular trade, but of all other branches of the Building Indus-
try as well. The various sections have been prepared especially
for home study, each written by an acknowledged authority on
the subject. The arrangement of matter is such as to carry the
student forward by easy stages. Series of review questions are
inserted in each volume, enabling the reader to test his knowl-
edge and make it a permanent possession. The illustrations have
been selected with unusual care to elucidate the text.

^L The work will be found to cover many important topics on
which little information has heretofore been available. This is
especially apparent in such sections as those on Steel, Concrete,
and Reinforced Concrete Construction; Building Superintendence;
Estimating; Contracts and Specifications, including the princi-
ples and methods of awarding and executing Government con-
tracts; and Building Law.

*L The method adopted in the preparation of the work is that
which the American School of Correspondence has developed
and employed so successfully for many years. It is not an
experiment, but has stood the severest of all tests — that of prac-
tical use — which has demonstrated it to be the best method
yet devised for the education of the busy working man.

*** In conclusion, grateful acknowledgment is due the staff of
authors and collaborators, without whose hearty co-operation
this work would have been impossible.

Table of Contents

VOLUME VI

MECHANICAL DRAWING . . . . By E. Kenison-f Page *ll

Instruments and Materials — T-Square — Triangles — Compasses — Dividers —
Bow- Pen and Pencil — Scales — Protractors — Irregular Curves - Lettering —
Penciling1 and Inking Plates — Geometrical Definitions —Angles — Surfaces —
Triangles — Quadrilaterals — Polygons — Circles — Measurement of Angles —
Solids — Pyramids —Cylinders — Cones — Spheres — Conic Sections — Ellipse —
Parabola — Hyperbola — Odontoidal Curves — Geometrical Problems — Ortho-
graphic Projection — Profile Plane -Shade Lines — Intersections and Develop-
ments — Isometric Projection — Oblique Projections — Line Shading — Tracing —
Blue- Printing — Assembly Drawing

ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING . . . By F. C. Brown Page 177

Office Lettering — Letter Forms — Skeleton Letters — Composition — Spacing —
Minuscule or Small Letters Inscription Lettering— Italian Renaissance Forms —
Uncial Gothic Capitals — Inscription Letter Sections — Classic Roman Letters —
English 17th Century Letters — Black-Letter Alphabet — Gothic Lettering-
Italian Black Letters — English Gothic Text

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING ByF.A. Bourne and H. V. von Hoist Page 22$

Instruments— Materials for Wash-Drawings — Tinted Papers — Tracing Paper
— Tracing Cloth — Line Drawing — Importance of Axes — Limiting Lines —
Oblique Projections — Modeling Drawings — Shadows — Values — Rendering in
Wash — Grading Tints — Combination of Color — Primary, Secondary, and
Complementary Colors — Water-Color Rendering — Water-Color Sketching —
Preliminary Studies in Architectural Design — Method of Ecolt des Beaux Arts —
Exhibition Drawings — Measured Work — Datum Lines — Approximations —
Rubbings — Practical Problems in Design — Theory of Design — Composition —
Scale — Ornament — Design of the Dwelling — Various Stages in Building a
House — Buildings for Offices — Design of Colonial House — Basement Plan —
Floor Plans — Elevations, Front and Side — Framing Plans — Details of Cornice,
Plumbing, Window-Frames', Trimming, Porch, Kitchen, Pantry, China Closet,
Staircase, Fireplaces, etc. — Uniform Titles for Drawings

Tor page numbers, see foot of pages.

*For professional standing of authors, see list of Authors and Collaborators at
front of volume.

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

The subject of mechanical drawing is of great interest and
importance to all mechanics and engineers. Drawing is the
method used to show graphically the small details of machinery;
it is the language by which the designer speaks to the workman;
it is the most graphical way to place ideas and calculations on
record. Working drawings take the place of lengthy explana-
tions, either written or verbal. A brief inspection of an accurate,
well-executed drawing gives a -better idea of a machine than a
large amount of verbal description. The better and more clearly
a drawing is made, the more intelligently the workman can com-
prehend the ideas of the designer. A thorough training in this
important subject is necessary to the success of everyone engaged
in mechanical work. The success of a draftsman depends to some
extent upon the quality of his instruments and materials. Begin-
ners frequently purchase a cheap grade of instruments. After
they have become expert and have learned to take care of their
instruments they discard them for those of better construction and
finish. This plan has its advantages, but to do the best work,
strong, well-made and finely finished instruments are necessary.

INSTRUHENTS AND HATERIALS.

Drawing Paper. In selecting drawing paper, the first thing
to be considered is the kind of paper most suitable for the pro-
posed work. For shop drawings, a manilla paper is frequently
used, on account of its toughness and strength, because the draw-
ing is likely to be subjected to considerable hard usage. If a
finished drawing is to be made, the . best white drawing paper
should be obtained, so that the drawing will not fade or become
discolored with age. A good drawing paper should be strong,
have uniform thickness and surface, should stretch evenly, and
should neither repel nor absorb liquids. It should also allow con-
siderable erasing without spoiling the surface, and it should lie
smooth when stretched or when ink or colors are used. It is, of

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

course, impossible to find all of these qualities in any one paper,
as for instance great strength cannot be combined with fine
surface.

In selecting a drawing paper the kind should be chosen
which combines the greatest number of these qualities for the
given work. Of the better class Whatman's are considered by
far the best. This paper is made in three grades; the hot
pressed has a smooth surface and is especially adapted for pencil
and very fine line drawing, the cold pressed is rougher than
the hot pressed, has a finely grained surface and is more suit-
able for water color drawing ; the rough is used for tinting. The
cold pressed does not take ink as well as the hot pressed, but
erasures do not show as much on it, and it is better for general
work. There is but little difference in the two sides of Whatman's
paper, and either can be used. This paper comes in sheets of
standard sizes as follows: —
Cap, IS X 17 inches. Elephant, 23 X 28 inches.

Demy, 15 X 20

Medium, 17 X 22

Royal, 19 X 24

Super-Royal, 19 X 27

Imperial, 22 X 30

Columbia, 23 X 34

Atlas, 26 X 34

Double Elephant, 27 X 40

Antiquarian, 31 X 53

Emperor, 48 X 68

The usual method of fastening paper to a drawing board is by
means of thuriib tacks or small one-ounce copper or iron tacks.
In fastening the paper by this method first fasten the upper left
hand corner and then the lower right pulling the paper taut. The
other two corners are then fastened, and sufficient number of tacks
are placed along the edges to make the paper lie smoothly. For
very fine work the paper is usually stretched and glued to the
board. To do this the edges of the paper are first turned up all
the way round, the margin being at least one inch. The whole
surface of the paper included between these turned up edges is
then moistened by means of a sponge or soft cloth and paste or
glue is spread on the turned up edges. After removing all the
surplus water on the paper, the edges are pressed down on the
board, commencing at one corner. During this process of laying
down the edges, the paper should be stretched slightly by pulling
the edges towards the edges of the drawing board. The drawing
board is then placed horizontally and left to dry. After the paper
has become dry it will be found to be as smooth and tight as a

MECHANICAL DRAWING

drum head. If, in stretching, the paper is stretched too much it
is likely to split in drying. A slight stretch is sufficient.

Drawing Board. The size of the drawing hoard depends
upon the size of paper. Many draftsmen, however, have several
boards of various sizes, as they are very convenient. The draw-
ing board is usually made of soft pine, which should be well sea-
soned and straight grained. The grain should run lengthwise of
the board, and at the two ends there should be pieces about 1^ or
2 inches wide fastened to the board by nails or screws. These
end pieces should be perfectly straight for accuracy in using the
T-square. Frequently the end pieces are fastened by a glued

DRAWING BOARD.

matched joint, nails and screws being alsp used; Two cleats on
the bottom extending the whole width of the board, will reduce
the tendency to warp, and make the board easier to move -as they
raise it from the table.

Thumb Tacks. Thumb tacks are used for fastening the
paper to the drawing board. They are usually made of steel
either pressed into shape, as in the cheaper grades, or made with a
head of German silver with the point screwed and riveted to it.
They are made in various sizes and are very convenient as they
can be easily removed from the board. For most work however,

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

draftsmen use small one-ounce copper or iron tacks, as they can be
forced flush with the drawing paper, thus offering no obstruction
to the T-square. They also possess the advantage of cheapness.
Pencils. In pencilling a drawing the lines should be very
fine and light. To obtain these light lines a hard lead pencil must
be used. Lead pencils are graded according to their hardness,
and are numbered by using the letter H. In general a lead pencil
of 5H (or HHHHH) or 6H should be used. A softer pencil, 4H,
is better for making letters, figures and
points. A hard lead pencil should be
sharpened as shown in Fig. 1. The wood
is cut away so that about ^ or | inch
of lead projects. The lead can then be
sharpened to a chisel edge by rubbing it
against a bit of sand paper or a fine file.
It should be ground to a chisel edge and
the corners slightly rounded. In making
the straight lines the chisel edge should
be used by placing it against the T-square
or triangle, and because of the chisel edge

the lead will remain sharp much longer than if sharpened to a point.
This chisel edge enables the draftsman to draw a fine line exactly
through a given point. If the drawing is not to be inked, but is
made for tracing or for rough usage jn the shop, a softer pencil,
3H or 4H, may be used, as the lines will then be somewhat thicker
and heavier. The lead for compasses may also be sharpened to a
point although some draftsmen prefer to use a chisel edge in the
compasses as well as for the pencil.

In using a very hard lead pencil, the chisel edge will make a
deep depression in the paper if much pressure is put on the pencil.
As 'this depression cannot be erased it is much better to press
lightly on the pencil.

Erasers. In making drawings, but. little erasing should be
necessary. However, in case this is necessary, a soft rubber
should be used. In erasing a line or letter, great care must be
exercised or the surrounding work will also become erased. To
prevent this, some draftsmen cut a slit about 3 inches long and
J to J inch wide in a card as shown in Fig. 2. The card is then

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

placed over the work and the line erased without erasing the rest
of the drawing. An erasing shield of a form similar to that shown
in Fig. 3 is very convenient, especially in erasing letters. It is
made of thin sheet metal and is clean and durahle.

For cleaning drawings, a sponge rubber may be used. Bread

<O <=> o

0 - O

Fig. 2.

Fig. 3.

crumbs are also used for this purpose. To clean the drawing
scatter dry bread crumbs over it and rub them on the surface
with the hand.

T-Square. The T-square consists of a thin straight edge

Fig. 4.

called the blade, fastened to a head at right angles to it. It gets
its name from the general shape. T-squares are made of various
materials, wood being the most commonly used. Fig. 4 shows an
ordinary form of T-square which is adapted to most work. In
Fig. 5 is shown a T-square with edges made of ebony or mahogany,
as these woods are much harder than pear wood or maple, which
is generally used. The head is formed so as to fit against the left-
hand edge of the drawing board, while the blade extends over the
surface. It is desirable to have the blade of the T-square form a
right angle with the head, so that the lines drawn with the T-
square will be at right angles to the left-hand edge of the board.
This, however, is not absolutely necessary, because the lines drawn
with the T-square- are always with reference to one edge of the

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

board only, and if this edge of the board is straight, the lines
drawn with the T-square will be parallel to each other. The T--
square should never be used except with the left-hand edge of the
board, as it is almost impossible to find a drawing broad with the
edges parallel or at right angles to each other.

The T-square with an adjustable head is frequently very con-
venient, as it is sometimes necessary to draw lines parallel to each

Fig. 5.

other which are not at right angles to the left-hand edge of the
board. This form of T-square is similar to the ordinary T-square
already described, but the 'head is swiveled so that it may be
clamped at any desired angle. The ordinary T-square as showo

in Figs. 4 and 5 is, how
ever, adapted to almost
any class of drawing.

Fig. 6 shows the
method of drawing parallel
horizontal lines with the
T-square. With the head
of the T-square in contact

F. with the left-hand edge of

the board, the lines may be

drawn by moving the T-square to the desired position. In using the
T-square the upper edge should always be used for drawing as the
two edges may not be exactly parallel and straight, and also it is
more convenient to use this edge with the triangles. If it is neces-
sary to use a straight edge for trimming drawings or cutting the
paper from the board, the lower edge of the T-square should be
used so that the upper edge may not be marred.

For accurate work it is absolutely necessary that the working
edge of the T-square 'should be exactly straight. To test the

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

straightness of the edge of the T-square, two T-squares may be
placed together as shown in Fig. 7. This figure shows plainly
that the edge of one of the T-squares is crooked. This fact, how-
ever, does not prove that either one is straight, and for .this deter-
mination a third blade must be
used and tried with the two
given T-squares successively.

Triangles. Triangles are
made of various substances such
as wood, rubber, celluloid and
steel. Wooden triangles are
cheap but are likely to warp and get out of shape. The rubber tri-
angles are frequently used, and are in general satisfactory. The
transparent celluloid triangle is, however, extensively used on ac-
count of its transparency, which enables the draftsmen to see the
work already done even when covered with the triangle. In using
a rubber or celluloid triangle take care that it lies perfectly flat or

Fig. 7.

TRIANGLES.

is hung up when not in use ; when allowed to lie on the drawing
board with a pencil or an eraser under one corner it will become
warped in a short time, especially if the room is hot or the sun
happens to strike the triangle.

Triangles are made in various sizes, and many draftsmen
have several constantly on hand. A triangle from 6 to 8 inches
on a side will be found convenient for most work, although there
are many cases where a small triangle measuring about 4 inches

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

L--V\

on a side will be found useful. Two triangles are necessary for

every draftsman, one having two angles of 45 degrees each and

one a right angle ; and the other having one angle of 60 degrees,

one of 30 degrees and one of 90 degrees.

The value of the triangle depends upon the accuracy of the

angles and the straightness of the edges. To test the accuracy of

the right angle of a tri-
angle, place the triangle
with the lower edge rest-
ing on the edge of the
T-square, as shown in
Fig. 8. Now draw the
line C D, which should be
perpendicular to the edge
of the T-square. The
same triangle should then

be placed in the position shown at B. If the right angle of the

triangle is exactly 90 degrees the left-hand edge of the triangle

should exactly coincide with the line C D.

To tost the accuracy of the 45-degree triangles, first test the

right angle then place the

triangle with the lower

edge resting on the work-
ing edge of the T-square,

and draw the line E F as

shown in Fig. 9. Now

without moving the T-

square place the triangle

Fig. 9.

so that the other 45-degree

angle is in the position

occupied by the first. If the two 45-degree angles coincide they

are accurate.

Triangles are very convenient in drawing lines at right
angles to the T-square. The method of doing this is shown in
Fig. 10. Triangles are also used in drawing lines at an angle
with the horizontal, by placing them on the board as shown in
Fig. 11. Suppose the line E F (Fig. 12) is drawn at any anjle,
and we wish to draw a line through the point P parallel to it.

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

First place one of the triangles as shown at A, having one edge
coinciditg with the given line. Now take the other trian-gle and
place one of its edges in contact with the bottom edge of triangle
A. Holding the triangle B firmly with the left hand the triangle
A may be slipped along to .the right or to the left until the edge
of the triangle reaches the
point P. The line M N
may then be drawn along
the edge of the triangle
passing through the point
P. In place of the tri-
angle B any straight edge
such as a T-square may be
used.

A line can be drawn

Fig. 10.

perpendicular to another by means of the triangles as follows.
Let E F (Fig. 13) be the given line, and suppose we wish to
draw a line perpendicular to E F through the point D. Place
the longest side of one of the triangles so that it coincides

with the lina E F, as the
triangle is snown in posi-
tion at A. Place the other
triangle (or any straight
edge) in the position of
the triangle as shown at
B, one edge resting against
the edge of the triangle A.

Fig. 11.

Then holding. B with the
left hand, place the tri-
angle A in the position shown at C, so that the longest side
passes through the point D. A line can then be drawn through
the point D perpendicular to E F.

In previous figures we have seen how lines may be drawn
making angles of 30, 45, 60 and 90 degrees with the horizontal.
If it is desired to draw lines forming angles of 15 and 75 degrees
the triangles may be placed as shown in Fig. 14.

In using the triangles and T-square almost any line may be
drawn. Suppose we wish to draw a rectangle having one side

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

horizontal. First place the T-square as shown in Fig. 15. By
moving the T-square up or down, the sides A B -and D C may be
drawn, because they are horizontal and parallel. Now place one
of the triangles resting on the T-square as shown at E, and hav-
ing the left-hand edge passing through the point D. The vertical

Fig. 12.

Fig. 13.

line D A may be drawn, and by sliding the triangle along the edge
of the T-square to the position F the line B C may be drawn by
using the same edge. These positions are shown dotted in Fig. 15.
If the rectangle is to be placed in some other position on the
drawing board, as shown in Fig. 16, place the 45-degree triangle

F so that one edge is
parallel to or coincides
with the side D C. Now
holding the triangle F in
position place the triangle
H so that its upper edgs
coincides with the lower
edge of the triangle F.
~By holding H in position
and sliding the triangle F
along its upper edge, the sides A B and D C may be drawn.
To draw the sides A D and B C the triangle should be used as
shown at E.

Compasses. Compasses are used for drawing circles and
arcs of circles. They are made of various materials and in various
sizes. The cheaper class of instruments are made of brass, but
they are unsatisfactory on account of the odor and the tendency
to tarnish. The best material is German silver. It does not SDJ!

Fig. 14.

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

readily, it has no odor, and is easy to keep clean. Aluminum in-
struments possess the advantage of lightness, but on account of
the soft metal they do not wear well.

The compasses are made in the form shown in Figs. 17 and
18. Pencil and pen points are provided, as shown in Fig. 17.
Either pen or pencil may be inserted in one leg by means of a
shank and socket. The
other leg is fitted with a
needle point which is
placed at the center of the
circle. In most instru-
ments the needle point is

D •

Fig. 15.

separate, and is made of a
piece of round steel wire
having a square shoulder
at one or both ends. Be-
low this shoulder the needle point projects. The needle is
made in this form so that the hole in the paper may be very
minute. .

In some instruments lock nuts are used to hold the joint
firmly in position. These lock nuts are thin discs of steel, with

notches for using a wrench or
forked key. Fig. 19 shows the
detail of the joint of high grade
instruments. Both legs are alike
at the joint, and two pivoted
screws are inserted in the yoke.
This permits ample movement
of the legs, and at the same

Fig. 16.

time gives the proper stiff-
ness. The flat surface of one of
the legs is faced with steel, the other being of German silver,
in order that the rubbing parts may be of different metals. Small
set screws are used to prevent the pivoted screws from turning
in the yoke. The contact surfaces of this joint are made cir-
cular ' to exclude dust and dirt and to prevent rusting of the
steel face.

Figs. 20, 21 and 22 show the detail of the socket; in some

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

instruments the shank and socket are pentagonal, as shown in
Fig. 20. The shank enters the socket loosely, and is held in place
by means of the screw. Unless used very carefully this arrange-
ment is not durable because the sharp corners soon wear, and the
pressure on the set screw is not sufficient to hold the shank firmly
in place.

In Fig. 21 is shown another form of shank. This is round,
having a flat top. A set screw is also used to hold this in posi-
tion. A still better form of socket is shown in Fig. 22 ; the hole

Fig. 17.

Fig. 18.

is made tapered and is circular. The shank fits accurately, and
is held in perfect alignment by a small steel key. The clamping
screw is placed upon the side, and keeps the two portions of the
split socket together.

Figs. 17 and 1.8 show that both legs of the compasses are
jointed in order that the lower part of the legs may be perpen-
dicular to the paper while drawing circles. In this way the
needle point makes but a small hole in the paper, and both nibs of

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

the pen will press equally on the paper. In pencilling circles it
is not as necessary that the pencil should be kept vertical; it is a
good plan, however, to learn to use them in this way both in pen-
cilling and inking. The com-
passes should be held loosely be-
tween the thumb and forefinger.
If the needle point is sharp, as
it should be, only a slight pres-
sure will be required to keep it
in place. While drawing the
circle, incline the compasses
slightly in the direction of
revolution and press lightly on
the pencil or pen.

In removing the pencil or
pen, it should be pulled out Fig. 19.

straight. If bent from side to side the socket will become en-
larged and the shank worn; this will render the instrument inac-
curate. For drawing large circles the lengthening bar shown in
Fig. 17 should be used. When using the lengthening bar the

Fig. 20.

Fig. 21.

needle point should be steadied with one hand and the circle
described with the other.

Dividers. Dividers, shown in Fig. 23, are made similar to the
compasses. They are used for laying off distances on the draw-
ing, either from scales or from other parts of the drawing. They
., may also be used for dividing a line

I — ^l" '^"'^Ij — ^ *n*° e(lual Pai'ts. When dividing a

Fio. 22 line into equal parts the dividers

should be turned in the opposite direc-
tion each time, so that the moving point passes alternately to
the right and to the left. The instrument can then be operated
readily with one hand. The points of the dividers should be
very sharp so that the holes made in the" paper will be small
If large holes are made in the paper, and the distances betweer

16 MECHANICAL DRAWING.

the points are not exact, accurate spacing cannot be done
Sometimes the compasses are furnished with steel divider points
in addition to the pen and pencil points. The compasses may
then be used either as dividers or as compasses. Many drafts-
men use a needle point in place of dividers for making measure-
ments from a scale. The eye end of a needle is first broken off
and the needle then forced into a small handle made of a round
piece of soft pine. This instrument is very convenient
for indicating the intersection of lines and marking off
distances.

Bow Pen and Bow Pencil. Ordinary large compasses
are too heavy to use in making small circles, fillets, etc.
The leverage of the long leg is so great that it is very
difficult to draw small circles accurately. For this reason
the bow compasses shown in Figs. 24 and 25 should be
used on all arcs and circles having a radius of less than
three-quarters inch. The bow compasses are also con-
venient for duplicating small circles such as those which
represent boiler tubes, bolt holes, etc., «ince there is no
tendency to slip.

The needle point must be adjusted to the same
length as the pen or pencil point if very small circles are
to be drawn. The adjustment for altering the radius of
the circle can be made by turning the nut. If the change
in radius is considerable the points should be pressed to-
gether to remove the pressure from the nut which can
Fi ' 23 then be turned in either direction with but little wear on

the threads.

Fig. 26 shows another bow instrument- which is frequently
used in small work in place of the dividers. It has the advantage
of retaining the adjustment.

Drawing Pen. For drawing straight lines and curves that
are not arcs of circles, the line pen (sometimes called the -ruling
pen) is used. It consists of two blades of steel fastened to a
handle as shown in Fig. 27. The distance between the pen points
can be adjusted by the thumb screw, thus regulating the width of
line to be drawn. The blades are given a slight curvature so that
there will be a cavity for- ink when the points are close together.

,24

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

The pen may be filled by means of a common steel pen or
with the quill which is provided with some liquid inks. The pen
should not be dipped in the ink because it will then be necessary
to wipe the outside of the blades before use. The ink should
fill the pen to a height of about ^ or | inch ; if too much ink is
placed in the pen it is likely to drop out and spoil the drawing.
Upon finishing the work the pen should be carefully wiped with

Fig. 24.

Fig. 25.

Fig. 26.

chamois or a soft cloth, because most liquid inks corrode the steel.
In using the pen, care should be taken that both blades bear
equally on the paper. If the points do not bear equally the line
will be ragged. If both points touch, and the pen is in good
condition the line will be smooth. The pen is usually inclined
slightly in the direction in which the line is drawn. The 'pen

Fig. 27.

should tour.Ji the triangle or' T-square which serve as guides, but
it should not be pressed against them because the lines will then
be uneven. The points of the pen should be close to the edge of
the triangle or T-square, but should not touch it.

To Sharpen the Drawing Pen. After the pen has been
used for some time the points become worn, and it is impossible

18 MECHANICAL DRAWING.

to make smooth lines. This is especially true if rough paper ig
used. The pen can be put in proper condition by sharpening it.
To do this take a small, flat, close-grained oil-stone. The blades
should first be screwed together, and the points of the pen can be
given the proper shape by drawing the pen back and forth over
the stone changing the inclination so that the shape of the ends
will be parabolic. This process dulls the points but gives them
the proper shape, and makes them of the same length.

To sharpen the pen, separate the points slightly and rub one
of them on the oil-stone. -While doing this keep the pen at an
angle of from 10 to 15 degrees with the face of the stone, and
give it a slight twisting movement. This part of the operation
requires great care as the shape of the ends must not be altered.
After the pen point has become fairly sharp the other point
should be ground in the same manner. All the grinding should
be done on the outside of the blades. The burr should be
removed from the inside of the blades by using a piece of leather
or a piece of pine wood.

Ink should now be placed between the blades and the pen
tried. The pen should make a smooth line whether fine or
heavyr but if it does not the grinding must be continued and the
pen tried frequently.

Ink. India ink is always used for drawing as it makes a
permanent black line. It may be purchased in solid, stick form
or as a liquid. The liquid form is very convenient as much time
is saved, and all the lines will be of the same color ; the acid in
the ink, however, corrodes steel and makes it necessary to keep
the pen perfectly clean.

Some draftsmen prefer to use the India ink which comes in
stick form. To prepare it for use, a little water should be placed
in a saucer and one end of the stick placed in it. The ink is
ground by giving it a twisting movement. When the water has
become black and slightly thickened, it should be tried. A
heavy line should.be made on a sheet of paper and allowed to
dry. If the line has a grayish appearance, more grinding is
necessary. After the ink is thick enough to make a good black
line, the grinding should cease, because very thick ink will not
flow freely front the pen. If, however, the ink has become too

MECHANICAL DRAWING. 19

thick, it may be diluted with water. After using, the stick
should be wiped dry to prevent crumbling. It is well to grind
the ink in small quantities as it does not dissolve readily if it has
once become dry. If the ink is kept covered it will keep for two
or three days.

Scales. Scales are used for obtaining the various measure-
ments on drawings. They are made in several forms, the most
convenient being the flat with beveled edges and the triangular.
The scale is usually a little over 12 inches long and is graduated
for a distance of 12 inches. The triangular scale shown in Fig.
28 has six surfaces for graduations, thus allowing many gradua-
tions on the same scale.

The graduations on the scales are arranged so that the
drawings may be made in any proportion to the actual size. For
mechanical work, the common divisions are multiples of two.

Fig. 28.

Thus we make drawings full size, half size, ^, •£-, -jL, gL, J^, etc.
If a drawing is ^ size, 3 inches equals 1 foot, hence 3 inches is
divided into 12 equal parts and each division represents one inch.
If the smallest division on a scale represents Jg inch, the scale is
said to read to -Jg- inch.

Scales are often divided into'-j1^, ^, ^, 3^, etc., for archi-
tects, civil engineers, and for measuring on indicator cards.

The scale should never be used for drawing lines in place of
triangles or T-square.

Protractor.. The protractor is an instrument used for laying,
off and measuring angles. It is made of steel, brass, horn and
paper. If made of metal the central portion is cut out as shown
in Fig. 29, so that the draftsman can see the drawing. The
outer edge is divided into degrees and tenths of degrees. Some-
times the graduations are very fine. In using a protractor a very
sharp hard pencil should be used so that the lines will be fine
and accurate.

The protractor should be placed so that the given line ( pro-

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

duced if necessary) coincides with the two O marks. The
center of the circle being placed at the point through which the
desired line is to be drawn. The division can then be marked
with the pencil point or needle point.

Irregular Curve, One of the conveniences of a draftsman's

outfit is the French or irregular curve. It is made of wood,
hard rubber or celluloid, the last named material being the best.
It is made in various shapes, two of the most common being

Fig. 30.

shown in Fig. 30. This instrument is used for drawing curves
other than arcs of circles, and both pencil and line pen can be
used.

To draw the curve, a series of points is first located and
then the curve drawn passing through them by using the part of
the irregular curve that passes through several of them. The

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

curve is shifted for this work from one position to another. It
frequently facilitates the work and improves its appearance to*
draw a free hand pencil curve through the points- and then use the
irregular curve, taking care that it always fits at least three points.
In inking the curve, the' blades of the pen must be kept

Fig. 31.

tangent to the curve, thus necessitating a continual change of
direction.

Beam Compasses. The ordinary compasses are not large
enough to draw circles having a diameter greater than about 8 or
.10 inches. A convenient instrument for larger circles is fourfd
in the beam compasses shown in Fig. 31. The two' parts called
channels carrying the pen or pencil and the needle point are
clamped to a wooden beam ; the distance between them being
equal to the1 radius of the circle. Accurate adjustment is obtained
by means of a thumb nut underneath one of the channel pieces.

LETTERING.

No mechanical drawing is finished unless all headings, titles
aid dimensions are lettered in plain, neat type. Many drawings
are accurate, well-planned and finely executed but do not present
a good appearance because the draftsman did not think it worth
while to letter well. Lettering requires time and patience;
and if one wishes to letter rapidly and well he must practice.

Usually a beginner cannot letter well, and in order to pro-
duce a satisfactory result, considerable practice is necessary. Many

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

think it a good plan to practice lettering before commencing a
drawing. A good writer does not always letter well ; a poor
writer need not be discouraged and think, he can never learn to
make a neatly lettered drawing.

In making large letters for titles and headings it is often
necessary to use drawing instruments and mechanical aids. The
small letters, such as those used for dimensions, names of materials,
dates, etc., should be made free hand.

There are many styles of letters used by draftsmen. For
titles, large Roman capitals are frequently used, although Gothic
and block letters also look well and are much easier to make.

ABCDEFGHIJ
KLMNOPQR
STUVWXYZ

1234567890

Fig. 32.

Almost any neat letter free from ornamentation is acceptable in the
regular practice of drafting. Fig. 32 shows the alphabet oi
vertical Gothic capitals. These letters are neat, plain and easily
made. The inclined or italicized Gothic type is shown in Fig. 33.
This style is also easy to construct, and possesses the advantage
that a slight difference in inclination is not apparent. If the ver-
tical lines of the vertical letters incline slightly the inaccuracy is
very noticeable.

The curves of the inclined Gothic letters such as those in the
B, CY, 6r, e7, etc., are somewhat difficult to make free hand,
especially if the letters are about one-half inch high. In the
alphabet shown in Fig. 34, the letters are made almost wholly of

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

straight lines, the corners only being curved. These letters are
very easy to make and are clear cut.

The first few plates of- this work will require no titles 3 the
only lettering being the student's name, together with the date
and plate number. Later, the student will take up the subject of

A BCDETGH/J
KLMNOPQFt
STUVWXYZ

Fig. 33.

lettering again in order to letter titles and headings for drawings
showing the details of machines. For the present, however, in-
clined G.othic capitals will be used.

To make the inclined Gothic letters, first draw two parallel
lines having the distance between them equal to the desired height
of the letters. If two sizes of letters are to be used, the smaller
should be about two-thirds as high as the larger. For the letters

A BCDETGH/JKLM

NOPQR S TU VWX YZ

/23456789O

Fig. 34.

to be used on the first plates, draw two parallel lines ^ inch apart.
This is the height for the letters of the date, name, also the plate
number, and should be used on all plates throughout this work,
unless other directions are given.

In constructing the letters, they should extend fully to these
lines, both at the top and bottom. They should not fall short of

24 MECHANICAL DRAWING.

the guide lines nor extend beyond them. As these letters are
inclined they will look better if the inclination is the same for all.
As an aid to the beginner, he can draw light pencil lines, about ^.
inch apart, forming the proper angle with the parallel lines already
drawn. The inclination is often made about 70 degrees; but as a
60-degree triangle is at hand, it may be used. To draw these
lines place the 60-degree triangle on the T-square as shown in
Fig. 36. In making these letters the 60-degree lines will be
found a great aid as a large proportion of the back or side lines
have this inclination.

Capital letters such as E, F, P, T, Z, etc., should have the
top lines coincide with the upper horizontal guide line. The
bottom lines of such letters as D, E, L, Z, etc., should coincide
with the lower horizontal guide line. If these lines do not coin-
cide with the guide lines the words will look uneven. Letters,
of which O, Gr, 0, and Q, are types, can be formed of curved lines
or of straight lines. If made of curved lines, they should have a
little greater height than the guide lines to prevent their appear-
ing smaller than the other letters. In this work they can be
made of straight lines with rounded corners as they are easily
constructed and the student can make all letters of the same
height.

To construct the letter A, draw a line at an angle of 60
degrees to the horizontal and use it as a center line. Then from
the intersection of this line and the upper horizontal line drop
a vertical line to the lower guide line. Draw another line from
the vertex meeting the lower guide line at the same* distance from
the center line. The cross line of the A should be a little below
the center. The F"is an inverted A without the cross line. For
the letter M, the side lines should be parallel and about the same
distance apart as are the horizontal lines. The side lines of the
TFare not parallel but are farther apart at the top. The Jis uot
quite as wide as such letters as H, E, N, R, etc. To make a Y.
draw the center line 60 degrees to the horizontal ; the diverg-
ing lines are similar to those of the V but are shorter and form a
larger angle. The diverging lines should meet the center line a
little below the middle.

The lower-case letters are shown in Fig. 35. In. such letters

MECHANICAL DRAWING. 25

as m, n, r, etc., make the corners sharp and not rounding. The
letters «, &, c, e, g, 0, j9, gs should be full and rounding. The
figures (see Fig, 32) are made as in writing — except the 4i 6->&
and 9.

The Roman numerals are made of straight lines as they
are largely made up of /, F'and X.

At first the copy should be followed closely and the letters
drawn in pencil. For a time, the inclined guide lines may be used.

abcdefgh/jk/mn
opqrs

Fig. 35.

but after the proper inclination becomes firmly fixed in. mind
they should be abandoned. The horizontal lines are used at all
times by most draftsmen. After the student has had consider-
able practice, he can construct the letters in ink without first using
the pencil. L'ater in the work, when the student has become -pro-
ficient in the simple inclined Gothic capitals, the vertical, block
and Roman alphabets should be studied.

PLATES,

To lay out a s'heet of paper for the places of this work, the
sheet, A B G F, (Fig. 36) is placed on the drawing board 2 or 3
inches from the left-hand edge which is called the working edge.
If placed near the left-hand edge, the T-square and triangles can
be used with greater firmness and the horizontal lines drawn with
the T-square will be more accurate. In placing the paper on the
board, always true it up according to the long edge of the sheet.
First fasten the paper to the board with thumb tacks, using at
least 4 — one at each corner. If the paper has a tendency to curl
it is better to use 6 or 8 tacks, placing them as shown in Fig. 36.
Thumb tacks are commonly used; but many draftsmen prefer
one-ounce tacks as they offer less obstruction to the T-square and
triangles.

After the paper is fastened in position, find the center of the

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

Fig. 36.

MECHANICAL DRAWING. 27

sheet by placing the T-square so that its upper edge coincides with
the diagonal corners A and G and then with the corners F and
B, drawing short pencil lines intersecting at C. Now place the
T-square so that its upper edge coincides with the point C and
draw the dot and dash line D E. With the T-square and one
of the triangles (shown dotted) in the position shown in Fig. 36,
draw the dot and dash line H C K. In case the drawing board
is large enough, the line C H can be drawn by moving the T-
square until it is entirely oft7 the drawing. If the board is small,
produce (extend) the line K C to II by means of the T-square
or edge of a triangle. In this work always move the pencil from
the left to the right or from the bottom upward ; never (except
for some particular purpose) in the opposite direction.

After the center lines are drawn measure off 5 inches above
and below th& point C on the line II C K. These points L
and M may be indicated by a light pencil mark or by a slight
puncture of one of the points of the dividers. Now place the T--
square against the left-hand edge of the board and draw horizontal
pencil lines through L and M.

Measure off 7 inches to the left and right of C on the center
line D C E and draw pencil lines through these points (N and
P) perpendicular to D E. We now have a rectangle 10 inches
by 14 inches, in which all the exercises and figures are to be
drawn. The lettering of the student's name and address, date,
and plate number are to be placed outside of this rectangle in the
1-inch margin/ In all cases lay out the plates in this manner and
keep the center lines D E and K H as a basis for the various
figures. The border line is to be inked with a heavy line when
the drawing is inked.

Pencilling. In laying out plates, all work is first done in pen-
cil and afterward inked or traced on tracing cloth. The first few
plates of this course are to be done in pencil and then inked ; later
the subject .of tracing and the process of making blue prints will
be taken up. Every beginner should practice with his instruments
until he can use them with accuracy and skill, and until he under-
stands thoroughly what instrument should be used for making a
given line. To aid the beginner in this work, the first three plates
of this course are designed to give the student practice ; they do

28 MECHANICAL DRAWING.

not involve any problems and none of the work is difficult. The
student is strongly advised to' draw these plates two or three
times before 'making the one to be sent to us for correction. Dili-
gent practice is necessary at first; especially on PLATE I as it
involves an exercise in lettering.

PLATE I.

Pencilling. To draw PLATE J, take a sheet of drawing
paper at least 11 inches by 15 inches and fasten it to the drawing
board as already explained. Find the center of the sheet and draw
fine pencil lines to represent the lines D E and H K of Fig. 36.
Also draw the border lines L, M, N and P.

Now measure | inch above and below the horizontal center line
and, with the T-square, draw lines through these points. These
lines will form the lower lines D C of Figs. 1 and 2 and the top lines
A B of Figs. 3 and 4- Measure | inch to the right and left of the
vertical center line ; and through these points, draw lines parallel
to the center line. 'These lines should be drawn by placing the
triangle on the T-square as shown in Fig. 36. The lines thus
drawn, form the sides B C of Figs. 1 and 3 and the sides A D of
Figs. 2 and 4. Next draw the line A BAB with the T-square,
4 1 inches above the horizontal center line. This line forms the
top lines of Figs. 1 and 2. Now draw the line D C D C 4| inches
below the horizontal center line. The rectangles of the four
figures are completed by drawing vertical lines 6| inches from the
vertical center line. We now have four rectangles each 6 J inches
long and 4J inches wide.

Fig. 1 is an exercise with the line pen and T-square. Divide
the line A D into divisions each \ inch long, making a fine pencil
point or slight puncture at each division such as E, F, G, H, I, etc.
Now place the T-square with the head at the left-hand edge of the
drawing board and through these points draw light pencil lines
extending to the line B C. In drawing these lines be careful to
have the pencil point pass exactly through the division marks so
that the lines will be the same distance apart. Start each line in
the line A D and do not fall short of the line B C or run over it.
Accuracy and neatness in pencilling insure an accurate drawing.
Some beginners think that they can correct inaccuracies while

_5. , _!LL< n_

CD O ! £Q _|5ZOQ-O-0: D

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

. 29

inking; but experience soon teaches them that they cannot do so.
Fig. 2 is an exercise with the line pen, T-square and triangle.
First divide the lower line D C of the rectangle into divisions each
| inch long and mark the points E, F, G, H, I, J, K, etc., as in
Fig, 1. Place the T-square with the head at the left-hand edge of
the drawing board and the upper edge in about the position shown
in Fig. 36. Place either triangle with one edge on the upper edge
of the T-square and the 90-degree angle at the left. Now draw
fine pencil lines from the line D C to the line A B passing .through
the points E, F, G, H. I, J, K, etc. To do this keep the T-square

G
H

K
L
M
N
0
p
Q
R
S
U
V

/ /- / //j

• H/N(?

THt- KUHJ

fJAlh'A /

A M/CA L

^Jf^CLJ

H/Sf^/G

ABCDfT

/ 2 3-4-

/ // /// /V

Fig. 37.

rigid and slide the triangle toward the right, being careful to have
the edge coincide with the division marks in succession.

Fig. 3 is an exercise with the line pen, T-square and 45-degree
triangle. First lay off the distances A E, E F, F G, G H, H I, IJ,
J K, etc., each J inch long. Then lay off the distances B L, L M,
M N, N O, O P, P Q, Q R, etc., also 1 inch long. Place the T-
square so that the upper edge will be below- the line D C of Fig. 3.
With the 45-degree triangle draw lines from A D and D C to
the points E, F, G, H, I, J, K, etc., as far as the point B. Now
draw line's from D C to the points L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, etc., as

80 MECHANICAL DRAWING.

far as the point C. In drawing these lines move the pencil away
from the body, that is, from A D to A B and from D C to B C.
Fig. 4 is an exercise in free-hand lettering. The finished,
exercise, with all guide lines' erased, should have the appearance
shown in Fig. fy of PLATE I. The guide lines are drawn as shown
in Fig. 37. First draw the center line E F and light pencil lines
Y Z and T X, | inch from the border lines. Now, with the T-
s*quare, draw the line G, ^ inch from the top line and the line H,
/2 inch below G. The word « LETTERING " is to be placed
between these two lines. Draw the line I, -^ inch below H.
The lines I, J, etc., to K are all •£% inch apart.

We now practice the lower-case letters. Draw the line L, ^3g
inch below K and a light line J .inch above L to limit the
height of the small letters. The space between L and M is g62-
inch. The lines M and N are drawn in the same manner as K and
L. The space between N and O should be £ inch. The line P is
drawn fa inch below O. Q is also g52 inch below P. The lines
Q and R are drawn -3§ inch apart as are M and N. The remainder
of the lines S, U, V and W are drawn fa inch apart.

The center line is a great aid in centering the word
•4 LETTERING" the alphabets, numerals, etc. The words
"THE" and "Proficiency" should be indented about £
inch as they are the first words of paragraphs. To draw the
guide lines, mark off distances of ^ inch on any line such as J and
with the 60-degree triangle draw light pencil lines cutting the
parallel lines. The letters should be sketched in pencil, the ordin-
ary letters such as E, F, H, N, R, etc. being made of a width
equal to about | the height. Letters like A, M and W are wider.
The space between the letters depends upon the draftsman's
taste but the beginner should remember that letters next to an
A or an L should be placed near them and that greater space
should be left on each side of an I or between letters whose sides are
parallel; for instance there should be more space between an N and
\\ than between an E and H. On account of the space above the
lower line of the L, a letter following an'L should be close to it.
[f a T follows a T or the letter L follows an L they should be
placed near together. In all lettering the letters should be placed
so that the general e'ffect is pleasing. After the four figures are

MECHANICAL DRAWING. bl

completed, the lettering for name, address and date should be
pencilled. With the T-square draw a pencil line •£% inch above
the top border line at the right-hand end. This line should be
about 3 inches long. At a distance of fa inch above this line draw
another line of about the same length. These are the guide lines
for the word PLATE L The letters should be pencilled free
hand and the student may use the 60-degree guide lines if he
desires.

The guide lines of the date, name and address are similarly
drawn in the lower margin. The date of completing the drawing
should be placed under Fig. 3 and the name and address at the
right under Fig. 4> The street address is unnecessary. It is a
good plan to draw lines ^ inch apart on a separate sheet of paper
and pencil the letters in order to know just how much space each
word will require. The insertion of the words " Fig. 1" " Fly.
2" etc., is optional with the student. He may leave thein out if he
desires ; but we would advise him to do this extra lettering for the
practice and for convenience in reference. First draw with the
T-square two parallel line •£% inch apart under each exercise ; the
lower line being -Jg inch above the horizontal center line or above
the lower border line.

Inking. After all of the pencilling of PLATE I has been
completed the exercises should be inked. The pen should first be
examined to make sure that the nibs are clean, of the same length
and come together evenly. To fill the pen with ink use an ordi-
nary steel pen or the quill in the bottle, if Higgin's Ink is used.
Dip the quill or pen into the bottle and then inside between the
nibs of the line pen. The ink will readily flow from the quill into
the space between the nibs as soon as it is brought in contact. Do
not fill the pen too full, if the ink fills about \ the distance to the
adjusting screw it usually will be sufficient. If the filling has been
carefully done it will not be necessary to wipe the outsides of the
blades. However, any ink on the outside should be wiped off
with a soft cloth or a piece of chamois.

The pen should now be tried on a separate piece of paper in
order that the width of the line may be adjusted. In the first
work where no shading is done, a firm distinct line should be used.
The beginner should avoid the extremes : a very light line makes

32 MECHANICAL DRAWING.

the drawing have a weak, indistinct appearance, and very heavy
lines detract from the artistic appearance and make the drawing
appear heavy.

In case the ink does not flow freely, wet the finger and touch
it to the end of the pen. If it then fails to flow, draw a slip of
thin paper between the nibs (thus removing the dried ink) or
clean thoroughly and fill. Never lay the pen aside without
cleaning.

In ruling with the line pen it should be held firmly in the
right hand almost perpendicular to the paper. If grasped too
firmly the width of the line may be varied and the draftsman
soon becomes fatigued. The pen is usually held so that the
adjusting screw is away from the T-square, triangles, etc. Many
draftsmen incline the pen slightly in the direction in which it is
moving.

To ink Fig. 1, place the T-square with the head at the work-
ing edge as in pencilling. First ink all of the horizontal lines
moving the T-square from.A to D. In drawing these lines con-
siderable care is necessary ; both nibs should touch the paper and
the pressure should be uniform. Have sufficient ink in the pen
to finish the line as it is difficult for a beginner to stop in the
middle of the line and after refilling the pen make a smooth con-
tinuous line. While inking the lines A, E, F, G, H, I, etc., greater
care should be taken in starting and stopping than while pencil-
ling. Each line should start exactly in the pencil line A D and
stop in the line B C. The lines A D and B C are inked, using
the triangle and T-square.

Fig. 2 is inked in the same manner as it was pencilled ; the
lines being drawn, sliding the triangle along the T-square in the
successive positions.

In inking Fig. 3, the same care is necessary as with the pre-
ceding, and after the oblique lines are inked the border lines are
finished. In Fig. 4 the border lines should be inked in first
and then the border lines of the plate. The border lines should
be quite heavy as they give the plate a better appearance. The
intersections should be accurate, as. any running over necessitates
erasing.

The line pen may now be cleaned and laid aside. It can be

MECHANICAL DRAWING. 33

cleaned by drawing a strip of blotting paper between the nibs or
by means of a piece of cloth or chamois. The lettering should be
done free-hand using a steel pen. If the pen is very fine, accu-
rate work may be done but the pen is likely to catch in the paper,
especially if the paper is rough. A coarser pen will make broader
lines but is on the whole preferable. Gillott's 404 is as fine a
pen as should be used. After inking Fig. 4, the plate number,
date and name should be inked, also free-hand. After ink-
ing the words " Fig. 1" " Fig. 2" etc., all pencil lines should
be erased. In the finished drawing there should be no center
lines, construction lines or letters other than those in the
name, date, etc.

The sheet should be cut to a size of n inches by 15 inches,
the dash line outside the border line of PLATE /indicating the
edge.

PLATE II.

Pencilling. The drawing paper used for PLATE //should
be laid out as described with PLATE I, that is, the border lines,
center line and rectangles for Figs. 1 and 2. To lay out Figs. 3,
Jj, and 5 proceed as follows : Draw a line with the T-square
parallel to the horizontal center line and | inch below it. Also
draw another similar line 44 below the center line. The two lines

will form the top and bottom of Figs. 3, 4- and 5. Now measure
off 2^ inches on either side of the center on the horizontal center
line and call the points Y and Z. On either side of Y and Z and
at a distance of ^ inch draw vertical parallel lines. Now draw a
vertical line A D, 4^ inches from the line Y and a vertical line
B C 4| inches from the line Z. We now have three rectangles
each. 4 inches broad and 4| inches high. Figs. 1 and 2 are pen-
cilled in exactly the same way as was Fig. 1 of PLATE /, that
is, horizontal lines are drawn A inch apart.

Fig. 3 is an exercise to show the use of a 60-degree triangle
with a T-square. Lay off the distances A E, E F, F G, G H, etc.
to B each ^ inch. With the 60 degree triangle resting on the
upper edge of the T-square, draw lines through these points, E, F,
G, H, I, J, etc., forming an angle of 30 degrees with the hori-
zontal. The last line drawn will be A L. In drawing these lines
move the pencil from A B to B C. Now find the distance

34 MECHANICAL DRAWING.

between the lines on the vertical B L and mark off these distances
on the line B C commencing at L. Continue the lines from A L
to N C. Commencing at N mark off distances on A D equal
to those on B C and finish drawing the oblique lines.

Fig. 4- is an exercise for intersection. Lay off distances of
£ inch on A B and A D. With the T-square draw fine pencil
lines through the points E, F, G, H, I, etc., and with the T-square
and triangle draw vertical lines through the points L, M, N, O, P,
etc. In drawing this figure draw every line exactly through the
points indicated as the sjrm metrical appearance of the small
squares can be attained only by accurate pencilling.

The oblique lines in Fig. 5 form an angle of 60 degrees with
the horizontal. As in Figs. 3 and 4 mark off the line A B in
divisions of ^ inch and draw with the T-square and 60-degree
triangle the oblique lines through these points of division movfng
the pencil from A B to B C. The last line thus drawn will be
A L. Now mark off distances of ^ inch on C D beginning at L.
The lines may now be finished.

Inking. Fig. 1 is designed to give the beginner practice in
drawing lines of varying widths. The line E is first drawn. This
line should be rather fine but should be clear and distinct. The
line F should be a little wider than E ; the greater width being
obtained by turning the adjusting screw from one-quarter to one-
half a turn. The lines G, H, I, etc., are drawn ; each successive
line having greater width. M and N should be the same and
quite heavy. From N to D the lines should decrease in width.
To complete the inking of Fig. 1, draw the border lines. These
lines should have about the same width as those in PLATE L

In Fig. 2 the first four lines should be dotted. The dots should
be uniform in length (about -J^ inch) and the spaces also uniform
(about .gig- inch). The next four lines are dash lines similar to
those used for dimensions. These lines should be drawn with
dashes about | inch long and the lines should be fine, yet distinct.

The following four lines are called dot and dash lines. The
dashes are about | inch long and a dot between as shown. In
the regular practice of drafting the length of the dashes depends
upon the size of the drawing — i inch to 1 inch being common.
The last four lines are similar, two dots being used between the

MECHANICAL DRAWING. 35

dashes. After completing the dot and dash lines, draw the border
lines of the rectangle as before.

In inking Fig. 3, the pencil lines are followed. Great care
should be exercised in starting and stopping. The lines should
begin in the border lines and the end should not run over.

The lines of Fig. 4- must be drawn carefully, as there are so
many intersections. The lines in this figure should be lighter than
the border lines. If every line does not coincide with the points
of division L, M, N, O, P, etc., some will appear farther apart
than others.

Fig. 5 is similar to Fig. 3, the only difference being in the
angle which the oblique lines make with the horizontal.

After completing the five figures draw the border lines of the
plate and then letter the plate number, date and name, and the
figure numbers, as in PLATE L The plate should then be
cut to the required size, n inches by 15 inches.

PLATE III.

Pencilling. The horizontal and vertical center lines and the
border lines for PLATE III are laid out in the same manner as
were those of PLATE II. To draw the squares fo'r the six figures,
proceed as follows :

Measure off two inches on either side of the vertical center
line and draw light pencil lines through these points parallel to
the vertical center line. These lines will form the sides A D and
B C of Figs. 2 and 5. Parallel to these lines and at a distance of
| inch draw similar lines to form the sides B C of Figs. 1 and 4
and A D of Figs. 3 and 6. The vertical sides A D of Figs. 1 and
4 and B C of Figs. 3 and 6 are formed by drawing lines perpen-
dicular to the horizontal center line at a distance of 6|- inches from
the center.

The horizontal sides D C of Figs. 1, 2 and 3 are drawn with
the T-square ^ inch above the horizontal center line. To draw the
top lines of these figures, draw (with the T-square) a line 41- inches
above the. horizontal center line. The top lines of Figs. £, 5 and
6 are drawn | inch below the horizontal center line. The squares
are completed by drawing the lower lines D C, 4| inches below
the horizontal center line. The figures of PLATES I and H

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

were constructed in rectangles ; the exercises of PL A TE III are,
however, drawn in squares, having the sides 4 inches long.

In drawing Fig. J?, first divide A D and A B (or D C ) into
4 equal parts. As these lines are four inches long, each length will
be 1 inch. Now draw horizontal lines through E, F and G and
vertical lines through L, M and N. These lines are shown dotted
in Fig. 1. Connect A and B with the intersection of lines E
and M, and A and D with the intersection of lines F and L.
Similarly draw D J, J C, I B and I C. Also connect the points P,
O, I and J forming a square. The four diamond shaped areas
are formed by drawing lines from the middle points of A D, A B,
B C and DC to the middle points of lines A P, A O, O B, I B
etc., as shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. % is an exercise of straight lines. Divide A D and A B
into four equal parts and draw horizontal and vertical lines as in
Fig. 1. Now divide these dimensions, A L, M N, etc. and E F,
G B etc. into four equal parts ( each £ inch ) . Draw light
pencil lines with the T-square and triangle as shown in Fig. 2.

In Fig. 3, divide A B and A D into eight parts, each length
being -j- inch. Through the points H, I, J, K, L, M and N draw
vertical lines with the triangle. Through O, P, Q, R, S, T and U
draw horizontal lines with the T-square. Now draw lines con-
necting O and H, P and I, Q and J, etc. These lines can be
drawn with the 45-degree triangle, as they form an angle of 45
degrees with the horizontal. Starting at N draw lines from A B
to B C at an angle of 45 degrees. Also draw lines from A D to
D C through the points O, P, Q, R, etc., forming angles of 45
degrees with D C.

Fig. 4- ig drawn with the compasses. First draw the diagonals
A C and D B. With the T-square draw the line E H. Now
mark off on E H distances of ^ inch. With the compasses set so
that the point of the lead is 2 inches from the needle point, de-
scribe the circle passing through E. With H as a center draw
the arcs F G and I J having a radius of 1| inches. In drawing
these arcs be careful not to go beyond the diagonals, but stop at
the points F and G and I and J. Again with H as the center
and a radius of li inches draw a circle. The arcs K L and M N
are drawn in the same manner as were arcs F G and I J ; the

MECHANICAL DRAWING. 37

radius being 1^ inches. Now draw circles, with H as the center,
of 1, |, \ and ^ inch radius, passing through the points P, T, etc.

Fig. 5 is an exercise with the line pen and compasses. First
draw the diagonals A C and D B, the horizontal line L M and the
vertical line E F passing through the center Q. Mark off dis-
tances of |- inch on L M and E F and draw the lines N N' O O'
and N R, O S, etc., through these points, forming the squares
N R R' N ', O S S' O', etc. With the bow pencil adjusted so
that the distance between the pencil point and the needle point is
|- inch draw the arcs having centers at the corners of the squares.
The arc whose center is N will be tangent to the lines A L and
A E and the arc whose center is O will be tangent to N N' and
N R. Since P T, T T', T' P' and P' P are each 1 inch long and
form the square, the arcs* drawn with Q as a center will form a
circle.

To draw Fig. 0, first draw the center lines E F and L M.
Now find the centers of the small squares ALIE, LBFI etc.
Through the center I draw the construction lines HIT and
RIP forming angles of 30 degrees with the horizontal. Now
adjust the compasses to draw circles having a radius of one inch.
With I as a center, draw the circle H P T R. With the same
radius ( one inch ) draw the arcs with centers at A, B, C and
D. Also draw the semi-circles with centers at L, F, M and E.
Now draw the arcs as shown having centers at the centers of the
small squares A L I E, L B F I, etc. To locate the centers of
the six small circles within the circle H P T R, draw a circle
with a radius of i-J inch and having the center in I. The small
circles have a radius of -^ inch.

Inking. In inking this plate, the outlines of the squares of
the various figures are inked only in Figs. 2 and 3. In Fig. 1 the
only lines to be inked are those shown in full lines in PLATE
III. First ink the star and then the square and diamonds. Tha
cross hatching should be done without measuring the distance be-
tween the lines and without the aid of any cross hatching device
as this is an exercise for practice. The lines should be about ^
inch apart. After inking erase all construction lines.

In inking Fig. 2 be careful not to run over lines. Each
line should coincide with the pencil line. The student should

38 MECPIANICAL DRAWING.

first ink the horizontal lines L, M and JS" and the vertical lines
E, F and G. The short lines should have the same width
but the border lines, A B, B C, C D and D A should be a
little heavier.

Fig. 3 is drawn entirely with the 45-degreo triangle. In ink-
ing the oblique lines make P I, R K, T M, etc., a light distinct
line. The alternate lines O H, Q J, S L, etc., should be some-
what heavier. All of the lines which slope in the opposite direc-
tion are light. After inking Fig. 3 all horizontal and vertical
lines (except the border lines) should be erased. The border
lines should be slightly heavier than the light oblique lines.

The only instrument used in inking Fig. 4 is the compasses.
In doing this exercise adjust the legs of the compasses so that the
pen will always be perpendicular to the paper. If this is not
done both nibs will not touch the paper and the line will be ragged.
In inking the arcs, see -that the pen stops exactly at the diagonals.
The circle passing through T and the small inner circle should be
dotted as shown in PLATE III. After inking the circles and
arcs erase the construction lines that are without the outer circles
but leave vs. pencil the diagonals inside the circle.

In Fig. 5 draw all arcs first and then draw the straight lines
meeting these arcs. It is much easier to draw straight lines meet-
ing arcs, or tangent to them, than to make the arcs tangent to
straight lines. As this exercise is difficult, and in all mechanical
and machine drawing arcs and tangents are frequently used we
advise the beginner to draw this exercise several times. Leave
all construction lines in pencil.

Fig. 6, like Fig. 4, is an exercise with compasses. If Fig. 6
has been laid out accurately in pencil, the inked arcs will be tan-
gent to each other and the finished exercise will have a good
appearance. If, however, the distances were not accurately
measured arid the lines carefully drawn the inked arcs will not be
tangent. The arcs whose centers are L, F, M and E and A, B, C
and D should be heavier than the rest. The small circles may be
drawn with the bow pen. After inking the arcs all construction
lines should be erased.

ALBANI

-PANTHEON*

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

PART II.
GEOflETRICAL DEFINITIONS.

A point is used for marking position ; it has neither length
breadth nor thickness.

A line has length only; it is produced by the motion of a
point.

A straight line or right line is one that has the same direction
throughout. It is the shortest distance between any two of its
points.

A curved line is one that is constantly changing in direction.
It is sometimes called a curve.

A *broken line is one made up of several straight lines.

Parallel lines are equally distant from each other at all
points.

A horizontal line is one having the direction of a liae drawn
upon the surface of water that is at rest. It is a line parallel to
the horizon.

A vertical line is one that lies in the direction of a thread
suspended from its upper end and having a weight at the lower
end. It is a line that is perpendicular to a horizontal plane.

Lines are perpendicular to each other, if when they cross,
the four angles formed are equal. If they meet and form two
equal angles they are perpendicular.

An oblique line is one that is neither vertical nor horizontal.

In Mechanical Drawing, lines drawn along the edge of the
T square, when the head of the T square is resting against the
left-hand edge of the board, are called horizontal lines. Those
drawn at right angles or perpendicular to the edge of the T square
are called vertical.

If two lines cut each other, they are called intersecting lines,
and the point at which they cross is called the point of intersection.

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

ANGLES.

An angle is formed when two straight lines meet. An angle
is often denned as being the difference hi direction of two straight
lines. The lines are called the sides and the point of meeting is
called the vertex. The size of an angle depends upon the amount
of divergence of the sides and is independent of the length of
these lines.

RIGHT ANGLE. ACUTE ANGLE. OBTUSE ANGLE.

If one straight line meet another and the angles thus formed
axe equal they are right angles. When two lines are perpendic-
ular to each other the angles formed are right angles.

An acute angle is less than a right angle.

An obtuse angle is greater than a right angle.

SURFACES.

A surface is produced by the motion of a line; it has two
dimensions, — length and breadth.

A plane figure is a plane bounded on all sides by lines ; the
space included within these lines (if they are straight lines) is
called a polygon or a rectilinear figure.

TRIANGLES.

A triangle is a figure enclosed by three straight lines. It is
a polygon of three sides. The bounding lines are the sides, and
the points of intersection of the sides are the vertices. The angles
of a triangle are the angles formed by the sides.

A right-angled triangle, often called a riglit triangle, is one
that has a right angle.

An acute=angled triangle is one that has all of its angles acute.

An obtuse=angled triangle is one that has an obtuse angle.

In an equilaterai triangle all of the sides are equal.

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

If all of the angles of a triangle are equal, the figure is called
an equiangular triangle.

A triangle is called scalene, when no two of its sides are
equal.

In an isosceles triangle two of the sides are equal.

RIGHT ANGLED TRIANGLE. ACUTE ANGLED TRIANGLE. OBTUSE ANGLED TRIANGLE.

The base of a triangle is the lowest side ; however, any side
may be taken as the base. In an isosceles triangle the «ide which
is not one of the equal sides is usually considered the base.

The altitude of a triangle is the perpendicular drawn from
the vertex to the base.

EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE. ISOSCELES TRIANGLE.

SCALENE TRIANGLE.

QUADRILATERALS.

A quadrilateral is a plane figure bounded by four straight
lines.

The diagonal of a quadrilateral is a straight line joining two
opposite vertices.

QUADRILATERAL.

TRAPEZOID.

PARALLELOGRAM.

A trapezium is a quadrilateral, no two of whose sides are
parallel.

A trapezoid is a quadrilateral having two sides parallel.

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

The bases of a trapezoid are its parallel sides. The altitude
is the perpendicular distance between the bases.

A parallelogram is a quadrilateral whose opposite sides are
parallel.

The altitude of a parallelogram is the perpendicular distance
between the bases which are the parallel sides.

There are four kinds of parallelograms:

RECTANOLE.

RHOMBUS.

right

A rectangle is a parallelogram, all of whose angles are
angles. The opposite sides are equal.

A square is a rectangle, all of whose sides are equal.

A rhombus is a parallelogram which has four equal sides;
but the angles are not right angles.

A rhomboid is a parallelogram whose adjacent sides are
anequal ; the angles are not right angles.

POLYGONS.

A polygon is a plane figure bounded by straight lines.
The boundary lines are called the sides and the sum of the
sides is called the perimeter.

Polygons are classified according to the number of sides.

A triangle is a polygon of three sides.

A quadrilateral is a polygon of four sides.

A pentagon is a polygon of five sides.

A hexagon is a polygon of six sides.

A heptagon is a polygon of seven sides.

An octagon is a polygon of eight sides.

A decagon is a polygon of ten sides.

A dodecagon is a polygon of twelve sides.
An equilateral polygon is one all of whose sides are equal.
An equiangular polygon is one all of whose angles are equal.
A regular polygon is one all of whose angles are equal and all
•?f whose sides are equal.

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

CIRCLES.

A circle is a plane figure bounded by a curved line, every point
of which is equally distant from a point within called the center.

The curve which bounds the circle is called the circumference
Any portion of the circumference is called an arc.

The diameter of a circle is a straight line drawn through the
center and terminating in the circumference. A radius is a
straight line joining the center with the circumference. It has a
length equal to ore half the diameter. All radii (plural of
radius) are equal and all diameters are equal since a diameter
equals two radii.

OCTAGON.

An arc equal to one-half the circumference is called a semi-
circumference, and an arc equal to one-quarter of the circumfer-
ence is- called a quadrant. A quadrant may mean the sector, arc
or angle.

A chord is a straight line joining the extremities of an arc.
It is a line drawn across a circle that does not pass through the
center.

A secant is a straight line which intersects the circumference
in two points.

A tangent is a straight line which touches the circumference
at only one point. It does not intersect the circumference. The
point at which the tangent touches the circumference is called the
point of tangency or point of contact.

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

A sector of a circle is the portion or area included between
an arc and two radii drawn to the extremities of the arc.

A segment of a circle is the area included between an arc
and its chord.

Circles are tangent when the circumferences touch at only
one point and are concentric when they have the same center.

CONCENTRIC CIRCLES.

INSCRIBED POLYGON

An inscribed angle is an angle whose vertex lies in the cir-
cumference and whose sides are chords. It is measured by one-
half the intercepted arc.

A central angle is an angle whose vertex is at the center of
the circle and whose sides are radii.

CENTRAL.
BANGLE.

An inscribed polygon is one whose vertices lie in the circum-
ference and whose sides are chords.

MEASUREHENT OF ANGLES.

To measure an angle describe an arc with the center at the
vertex of the angle and having any convenient radius. The por-
tion of the arc included between the sides of the angle is the
measure of the angle. If the arc has a constant radius the greater
the divergence of the sides, the longer will be the arc. If there
are several arcs drawn with the same center, the intercepted arcs
will have different lengths but they will all be the same fraction
of the entire circumference.

In order that the size of an angle or arc may be stated with-

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

tnx 90 76

out saying that it is a certain fraction of a circumference, the cir-
cumference is divided into 360
equal parts called degrees. Thus
we can say that an angle contains
45 degrees, which means that it is
•g^-Q — | of a circumference. In
order to obtain accurate measure-
ments each degree is divided into
60 equal parts called minutes and
each minute is divided into 60 equal
parts called seconds. Angles and

arcs are usually measured by means of an instrument called a
protractor which has already been explained.

SOLIDS.

A polyedron is a solid bounded by planes. The bounding
planes are called the faces and their intersections edges. The
intersections of the edges are called vertices.

A polygon having four faces is called a tetraedron ; one having
six faces a hexaedron ; of eight faces an octaedron; of twelve
faces a dodecaedron, etc.

RIGHT PRISM.

TRUNCATED PRISM.

A prism is a polyedron, of which two opposite faces, called
bases, are equal and parallel ; the other faces, called lateral faces
are parallelograms.

The area of the lateral faces is called the lateral area.

The altitude of a prism is the perpendicular distance between
the bases.

Prisms are triangular, quadrangular, etc., according to the
shape of the base.

A right prism is one whose lateral edges are perpendicular
to the bases.

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

A regular prism is a right prism having regular polygons for
bases.

A parallelepiped is a prism whose bases are parallelograms.
If the edges are all perpendicular to the bases it is called a right
parallelepiped.

A rectangular parallelepiped is a right parallelepiped whose
bases are rectangles ; all the faces are rectangles.

PARALLELOPIPED.

RECTANGULAR PARALLELOPIPED.

OCTAEDRON.

A cube is a rectangular parallelepiped all of whose faces are
squares.

A truncated prism is the portion of a prism included between
the base and a plane not parallel to the base.

PYRAMIDS.

A pyramid is a polyedron one face of which is a polygon
(called the base) and the other faces are triangles having a com-
mon vertex.

REGULAR PYRAMID.

FRUSTUM OF PYRAMID.

The vertices of the triangles form the vertex of the pyramid.

The altitude of the pyramid is the perpendicular distance
from the vertex to the base.

A pyramid is called triangular, quadrangular, etc., accord-
ing- to the shape of the base.

A regular pyramid is one whose base is a regular polygon

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

and whose vertex lies in the perpendicular erected at the center
of the base.

A truncated pyramid is the portion of a pyramid included
between the base and a plane not parallel to the base.

A frustum of a pyramid is the solid included between the
base and a plane parallel to the base.

The altitude of a frustum of a pyramid is the perpendicular
distance between the bases.

CYLINDERS.

A cylindrical surface is a curved surface generated by the
motion of a straight line which touches a curve and continues
parallel to itself.

A cylinder is a solid bounded by a cylindrical surface and
two parallel planes intersecting this surface.

The parallel faces are called

CYLINDER.

RIGHT CYLINDER.

The altitude of a cylinder is the perpendicular distance
between the bases.

A circular cylinder is a cylinder whose base is a circle.

A right cylinder or a cylinder of revolution is a cylinder gen-
erated by the revolution of a rectangle about one side as an axis.

A prism whose base is a regular polygon may be inscribed in
or circumscribed about a circular cylinder.

The cylindrical area is call the lateral area. The total area
is the area of the bases added to the lateral area.

CONES.

A conical surface is a curved surface generated by the
motion of a straight line, one point of which is fixed and the end
or ends of which move in a curve.

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

A cone is a solid bounded by a conical surface and a plane
which cuts the conical surface.

The plane is called the base and the curved surface the
lateral area.

The vertex is the fixed point.

The altitude of a cone is the perpendicular distance from the
vertex ^to the base..

An element of a cone is a straight line from the vertex to the
perimeter of the base.

A circular cone is a cone whose base is a circle.

BIGHT CIRCULAR CONE.

FRUSTUM OF CONE.

A right circular cone or cone of revolution is a cone whose
axis is perpendicular to the base. It may be generated by the
revolution of a right triangle about o*ne of the perpendicular sides
as an axis.

A frustum of a cone is the solid included between the base
and a plane parallel to the base.

TANGENT PLANE.

The altitude of a frustum of a cone is the perpendicular
distance between the bases.

SPHERES.

A sphere is a solid bounded by a curved surface, every point

of which is equally distant from a point Avithin called the center.

The radius of a sphere is a straight line drawn from the

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

center to the surface. The diameter is a straight line drawn
through the center and having its extremities in the surface.

A sphere may be generated by the revolution of a semi-circle
about its diameter as an axis.

An inscribed polyedron is a polyedron whose vertices lie in
the surface of the sphere.

An circumscribed polyedron is a polyedron whose faces are
tangent to a sphere.

A great circle is the intersection of the spherical surface and
a plane passing through thj center of a sphere.

A small circle is the intersection of the spherical surface and
a plane which does not pass through the center.

A sphere is tangent to a plane when the plane touches the
surface in only one point. A plane perpendicular to the extremity
of a radius is tangent to the sphere.

CONIC SECTIONS.

If a plane intersects a cone the geometrical figures thus
formed are called conic sections. A plane perpendicular to the
base and passing through the vertex of a right circular cone forms
an isosceles triangle. If the plane is parallel to the base the
intersection of the plane and conical surface will be the circum-
ference of a circle.

Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4.

Ellipse. The ellipse is a curve formed by the intersection of
a plane and a cone, the plane being oblique to the axis but not
cutting the base. If a plane is passed through a cone as shown
in Fig. 1 or through a cylinder as shown in Fig 2, the curve of
intersection will be an ellipse, An ellipse may be defined as
being o, curve generated by a point moving in a plane, the sum of
the distances of the point to two fixed points being always constant.

The two fixed points are called the foci and lie on the

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

longest line that can be drawn in the ellipse. One of these points
is called a focus.

The longest line that can be drawn in an ellipse is called the
major axis and the shortest line, passing through the center, is
called the minor axis. The minor axis is perpendicular to the
middle point of the major axis and the point of intersection is
called the center

An ellipse may be constructed if the major and minor axes
are given or if the foci and one axis are known.

Parabola. The parabola is a curve formed by the inter-
section of a cone and a plane parallel to an element as shown in
Fig. 3. The curve is not a closed curve. The branches approach
parallelism.

A parabola may be defined as being a curve every point of
which is equally distant from a line
and a point.

The point is called the focus and
the given line the directrix. The
line perpendicular to the directrix
and passing through the focus is
the axis. The intersection of the
axis and the curve is the vertex.

Hyperbola. This curve is formed

by the intersection of a plane and a cone, the plane being parallel
to the axis of the cone as shown in Fig. 4. Like the parabola,
the curve is not a closed curve ; the branches constantly diverge.
An hyperbola is defined as being a plane curve such that the
difference of the distances from any point in the curve to two fixed
points is equal to a given distance.

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

The two fixed points are the foci and the line passing through
them is the transverse axis.

Rectangular Hyperbola. The form of hyperbola most used
in Mechanical Engineering is called the rectangular hyperbola
because it is drawn with reference to rectangular co-ordinates.
This curve is constructed as follows : In Fig. 5, O X and O Y are
the two co-ordinates drawn at right angles to each other. These

lines are also called axes or y A E r G H c

asymptotes. Assume A to
be a known point on the
curve. In drawing this curve
for the theoretical indicator
card, this point A is the point
of cut-off.

Draw A C parallel to
O X and A D perpendicular
to O X. Now mark off any

-- L1

2} £' ./

Fig. 5.

G' fi' X

convenient points on A C such as E, F, G, and H ; and through
these points draw EE', FF', GG', and HH' perpendicular to O X.
Connect E, F, G, H and C with O. Through the points of inter-
section of the oblique lines and the vertical line A D draw the
horizontal lines LL', MM', NN', PP' and QQ'. The first point on
the curve is the assumed point A, the second point is R, the
intersection of LL' and EE'. The third is the intersection S
of MM' and FF'; the fourth is the intersection T of NN' and
GG'. The other points are found in the same way.

In this curve the products of the co-ordinates of all points are
equal. Thus LR X RE' = MS X SF'= NT X TG'.

ODONTOIDAL CURVES.

The outlines of the teeth of gears must be drawn accurately
because the smoothness of running depends upon the shape of the
teeth. The two classes of curves generally employed in drawing
gear teeth are the cycloidal and involute.

Cycloid. The cycloid is a curve generated by a point on the
circumference of a circle which rolls on a straight line tangent to
the circle.

The rolling circle is called the describing or generating circle

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

and the point, the describing or generating point. The tangent
along which the circle rolls is called the director.

In order that the curve may be a true cycloid the circle must
roll without any slipping.

TANGENT OR ZHRECTOFl

Epicycloid. If the generating circle rolls upon the outside
of an arc or circle, called the director circle, the curve thus gener-
ated is called an epicycloid. The method of drawing this curve
is the same as that for the cycloid.

Hypocycloid. In case the generating circle rolls upon the
inside of an arc or circle, the curve thus generated is called the
hypocycloid. The circle upon which the generating circle rolls is

called the director circle. If the generating circle has a diameter
equal to the radius of the director circle the hypocycloid becomes
a straight line.

Involute. If a thread or fine wire is wound around a
cylinder or circle and then unwound, the end will describe a
curve called an involute. The involute may be defined as being
a curve generated by a point in a tangent rolling on a circle known
as the base circle.

The construction of the ellipse, parabola, hyperbola and
odontoidal curves will be taken up in detail with the plates.

MECHANICAL DRAWING. 17

PLATE IV.

Pencilling, The horizontal and vertical center lines and the
border lines for PLATE IV should l;e laid out in the same
manner as were those for PLATE I. There are to be six figures
on this plate and to facilitate the laying out of the work, the fol-
lowing lines should be drawn: measure off 2| inches on both sides
of the vertical center line and through these points draw vertical
lines as shown in dot and dash lines on PLATE IV. In these
six spaces the six figures are to be drawn, the student placing
them in the centers of the spaces so that they will present a good
appearance. In locating the figures, they should be placed a little
above the center so that there will be sufficient space below to
number the. problem.

The figures of the problems should first be drawn lightly in
pencil and after the entire plate is completed the lines should be
inked. In pencilling, all intersections must be formed with great
care as the accuracy of the results depends upon the pencilling.
Keep the pencil points in good order at all times and draw lines
exactly through intersections.

GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS.

The following problems are of great importance to the
mechanical draughtsman. The student should solve them with
care ; he should not do them blindly, but should understand them
so that he can apply the principles in later work.

PROBLEM I. To Bisect a Given Straight Line.

Draw the horizontal straight line A C about 3 inches long.
With the extremity A as a center and any convenient radius
(about 2 inches) describe arcs above and below the line A C.
With the other extremity C as a center and with the same radius
draw short arcs above and below A C intersecting the first arcs at
D and E. The radius of these arcs must be greater than one-half
the length of the line in order that they may intersect. Now
draw the straight line D E passing through the intersections D
and E. This line cuts the line A C at F which" is the middle
point.

18 MECHANICAL DRAWING.

Proof, Since the points D and E are equally distant from
A and C a straight line drawn through them is perpendicular to
A C at its middle point F.

PROBLEM 2. To Construct an Angle Equal to a Given
Angle.

Draw the line O C about 2 inches long and the line O A of
about the same length. The angle formed by these lines may be
any convenient size (about 45 degrees is suitable). This angle
A O C is the given angle.

Now draw F G a horizontal line about 2^ inches long and let
F the left-hand extremity be the vertex of the angle to be
constructed.

With O as a center and any convenient radius (about 1|
inches) describe the arc L M cutting both O A and OC. With
F as a center and the same radius draw the indefinite arc O Q.
Now set the compass so that the distance between the pencil and
the needle point is equal to the chord L M. With Q as a center
and a radius equal to L M draw an arc cutting the arc O Q at P.
Through F and P draw the straight line F E. The angle E F G
is the required angle since it is equal to A O C.

Proof. Since the chords of the arcs L M and P Q are equal
the arcs are equal. The angles are equal because with equal
radii equal arcs are intercepted by equal angles.

PROBLEM 3. To Draw Through a Given Point a Line
Parallel to a Given Line.

First Method. Draw the horizontal straight line A C about
3| inches long and assume the point P about 1J inches above
A C. Through the point P draw an oblique line F E forming
any convenient angle with A C. (Make the angle about 60
degrees). Now construct an angle equal to P F G having the
vertex at P and one side the line E P. (See problem 2).
This may be done as follows : With F as a center and any con-
venient radius, describe the arc L M. With the same radius
draw the indefinite arc N O using P as the center. With N as a
center and a radius equal to the chord L M, draw an arc cutting
the arc N O at O. Through the points P and O draw a straight
line which will be parallel to A G.

0 V

/*x

1 'I

MECHANICAL DRAWING. 19

Proof. If two straight lines are cut by a third making the
corresponding angles equal, the lines are parallel.

PROBLEM 4. To Draw Through a Given Point a Line
Parallel to a Given Line.

Second Method. Draw the straight line A C about 3| inches
long and assume the point P about 1J inches above A C. With
? as a center and any convenient radius (about 2£ inches) draw
the indefinite arc E D cutting the line A C. Now with the same
radius and with D as a center, draw an arc P Q. Set the com-
pass so that the distance between the needle point and the pencil
is equal to the chord P Q. With D as a center and a radius
equal to P Q, describe an arc cutting the arc E D at H. A line
drawn through P and H will be parallel to A C.

Proof. Draw the line Q H. Since the arcs P Q and H D
are equal and have the same radii, the angles P H Q and H Q D
are equal. Two lines are parallel if the alternate interior angles
are equal.

PROBLEM 5. To Draw a Perpendicular to a Line from
a Point in the Line.

First Method. When the point is near the middle of the line.

Draw the horizontal line A C about 3J inches long and
assume the point P near the middle of the line. With P as a
center and any convenient radius (about 1^ inches) draw two arcs
cutting the line A C at E and F. Now with E and F as centers
and any convenient radius (about 2-£ inches) describe arcs inter-
secting at O. The line O P will be perpendicular to A C at P.

Proof. The points P and O are equally distant from E and
F. Hence a line drawn through them is perpendicular to the
middle point of E F which is P.

PROBLEM 6. To Draw a Perpendicular to a Line from
a Point in the Line.

Second Method. When the point is near the end of the line.

Draw the line A C about 3^ inches long. Assume the given
point P to be about | inch from the end A. With any point D
as a center and a radius equal to D P, des'cribe an arc, cutting A C
at E. Through E and D draw the diameter E O. A line from
O to P is perpendicular to A C at P.

20 MECHANICAL DRAWING.

Proof. The angle O P E is inscribed in a semi-circle ; hence
it is a right angle, and the sides O P and P E are perpendicular
to each other.

After completing these figures draw pencil lines for the
lettering. The words " PLATE IV" and the date and nanu
should be placed in the border, as in preceding plates. To
letter the words " Problem 1," "Problem 2," etc., draw horizontal
lines ^ inch above the horizontal center line and the lower border
line. Draw another line ^ inch above, to limit the height of the
P, b and 1. Draw a third line ^ inch above the lower line as a
guide line for the tops of the small letters.

Inking. In inking PLATE IV the figures should be inked
first. The line A C of Problem 1 should be a full line as it is
the given line ; the arcs and line D E, being construction lines
should be dotted. In Problem 2, the sides of the angles should
be full lines. Make the chord L M and the arcs dotted, since
as before, they are construction lines.

In Problem 3, the line A C is the given line and P O is the
line drawn parallel to it. As E F and the arcs do not form a part
of the problem but are merely construction lines, drawn as an aid
in locating P O, they should be dotted. In Problems 4, 5 and 6,
the assumed lines and those found by means of the construction
lines should be full lines.. The arcs and construction lines should
he dotted. In Problem 6, the entire circumference need not be
Inked, only that part is necessary that is used in the problem.
The inked arc should however be of sufficient length to pass
through the points O, P and E.

Aft-er inking the figures, the border lines should be inked
with a heavy line as before. Also, the words "PLATE IV" and
the date and the student's name. Under each problem the words
" Problem 1," " Problem 2," etc., should be inked ; lower case let-
ters being used as shown.

PLATE V.

Pencilling. In laying out the border lines and centre lines
follow the directions given for PLATE IV. The dot and
dash lines should be drawn in the same manner as there are to be
six problems on this plate.

<Vl

MECHANICAL DRAWING. 21

PROBLEM 7. To Draw a Perpendicular to a Line from a
Point without the Line.

Draw the horizontal straight line A C about 3^ inches long.
Assume the point P about li inches above the line. With P as
a center and any convenient radius (about 2 inches) describe an
arc cutting A C at E and F. The radius of this arc must always
be such that it will cut A C in two points ; the nearer the points
E and F are to A and C, the greater will be the accuracy of the
work. Now with E and F as centers and any convenient radius
(about 2|- inches) draw the arcs intersecting below A C at T. A
line through the points P and T will be perpendicular to A C.

In case there is not room below A C to draw the arcs, they
may be drawn intersecting above the line as shown at N. When-
ever convenient, draw the arcs below A C for greater accuracy.

Proof. Since P and T are equally distant from E and F,
the line P T is perpendicular to A C.

PROBLEM 8. To Bisect a Given Angle.

First Method. When the sides intersect.

Draw the lines O C and O A forming any angle (from 45 to
60 degrees). These lines should be about 3 inches long. With
O as a center and any convenient radius (about 2 inches) draw
an arc intersecting the sides of the angle at E and F. With E
and F as centers and a radius of 1| or If inches, describe short
arcs intersecting at I. A line O D, drawn through the points O
and I, bisects the angle.

In solving this problem the arc E F should not be too near
the vertex if accuracy is desired.

Proof. The central angles A O D and DOC are equal
because the arc E F is bisected by the line O D. The point I is
equally distant from E and F.

PROBLEM 9. To Bisect a Given Angle,

Second Method. When the lines do not intersect.

Draw the lines A C and E F about 4 inches long and in the
positions as shown on PLATE V. Draw A' C' and E' F' parallel
to A C and E F and at such equal distances from them that
they will intersect at O. Now bisect the angle C' O F' by

22 MECHANICAL DRAWING.

the method of Problem 8. Draw the arc G H and with G and H
as centers draw the arcs intersecting at R. The line O R bisects
the angle.

Proof. Since A' C' is parallel to A C and E' F parallel to
E F, the angle C' O F' is equal to the angle formed by the lines
A C and E F. Hence as O R bisects angle C' O F' it also bisects
the angle formed by the lines A C and E F.

PROBLEM 10. To Divide a Given Line into any Number
of Equal Parts.

Let A C, about 3^ inches long, be the given line. Let us
divide it into 7 equal parts. Draw the line A J at least 4 inches
long, forming any convenient angle with A C. On A J lay off,
by means of the dividers or scale, points D, E, F, G, etc., each ^ inch
apart. If dividers are used the spaces need not be exactly ^
inch. Draw the line J C and through the points D, E, F, G, etc.,
draw lines parallel to J C. These parallels will divide the line
A C into 7 equal parts.

Proof. If a series of parallel lines, cutting two straight
lines, intercept equal distances on one of these lines, they also
intercept equal distances on the other.

PROBLEM 11. To Construct a Triangle having given the
Three Sides.

Draw the three sides as follows :

A C, 2f inches long.
E F, llf inches long.
M N, 2-j^- inches long.

Draw R S equal in length to A C. With R as a center and
a radius equal to E F describe an arc. With S as a center and
a radius equal to M N draw an arc cutting the arc previously
drawn, at T. Connect T with R and S to form the triangle.

PROBLEM 12. To Construct a Triangle having given
One Side and the Two Adjacent Angles.

Draw the line M N 3^ inches long and draw two angles
A O D and E F G. Make the angle A O D about 30 degrees and
E F G about 60 degrees.

Draw R S equal in length to M N and at R construct an

MECHANICAL DRAWING. 23

angle equal to A O D. At S construct an angle equal to E F G
by the method used in Problem 2. PLATE V shows the neces-
sary arcs. Produce the sides of the angles thus constructed
until they meet at T. The triangle R T S will be the required
triangle.

After drawing these six figures in pencil, draw the pencil
lines for the lettering. The lines for the words '•'•PLATE V"
date and name, should be pencilled as explained on page 20.
The words " Problem 7," " Problem 8,>5 etc., are lettered as for
PLATE IV.

Inking. In inking PLATE V, the same principles should
be followed as stated with PLATE IV. The student should
apply these principles and not make certain lines dotted just
because they are shown dotted in PLATE V.

After inking the figures, the border lines should be inked
and the lettering inked as already explained in connection with
previous plates.

PLATE VI.

Pencilling. Lay out this plate in the same manner as the
two preceding plates.

PROBLEM 13. To describe an Arc or Circumference
through Three Given Points not in the same straight line.

Locate the three points A, B and C. Let the distance
between A and B be about 2 inches and the distance between A
and C be about 2£ inches. Connect A and B and A and C.
Erect perpendiculars to the middle points of <V B and A C. This
may be done as explained with Problem 1. With A and B as
centers and a radius of about 1| inches, describe the arcs inter-
secting at I and J. With A and C as centers and with a radius
of about 1| inches draw the arcs, intersecting at E and F. Now
draw light pencil lines connecting the intersections I and J and
E and F. These lines will intersect at O.

With O as a center and a radius equal to the distance O A,
describe the circumference passing through A, B and C.

Proof. The point O is equally distant from A, B and C,
since it lies in the perpendiculars to the middle points of A B and

24 MECHANICAL DRAWING.

A C. Hence the circumference will pass through A, B and C.

PROBLEM 14. To inscribe a Circle in a given Triangle.

Draw the triangle L M N of any convenient size. M N may
be made 3^ inches, L M, 2| inches, and L N, 31 inches. Bisect
the angles M L N and L M N. The bisectors M I and L J may
be drawn by the method used in Problem 8. Describe the arcs
A C and E F, having centers at L and M respectively. The arcs
intersecting at I and J are drawn as already explained. The
bisectors of the angles intersect at O, which is the center of the
inscribed circle. The radius of the circle is equal to the perpen-
dicular distance from O to one of the sides.

Proof. The point of intersection of the bisectors of the
angles of a triangle is equally distant from the sides.

PROBLEM 15. To inscribe a Regular Pentagon in a given
Circle.

With O as a center and a radius of about 1£ inches, describe
the given circle. With the T square and triangles draw the cen-
ter lines A C and E F. These lines- should be perpendicular to
each other and pass through O. Bisect one of the radii, such as
O C, and with this point H as a center and a radius H E, describe
the arc E P. This arc cuts the diameter A C at P. With E as
a center and a radius E P, draw arcs cutting the circumference
at L and Q. With the same radius and a center at L, draw the
arc, cutting the circumference at M. To find the point N, use
either M or Q as a center and the distance E P as a radius.

The pentagon is completed by drawing the chords E L, L M,
M N, N Q and Q E.

PROBLEM 16. To inscribe a Regular Hexagon in a given
Circle.

With O as a center and a radius of 1|- inches draw the given
circle. With the T square draw the diameter A D. With D as
a center, and a radius equal to O D, describe arcs cutting the
circumference at C and E. Now with C and E as centers and
the same radius, draw the arcs, cutting the circumference at B
and F. Draw the hexagon by joining the points thus formed.

To inscribe a regular hexagon in a circle mark off chords
equal in length to the radius.

MECHANICAL DRAWING. 25

To inscribe an equilateral triangle in a circle the same method
may be used. The triangle is formed by joining the opposite
vertices of the hexagon.

Proof. The triangle O C D is an equilateral triangle by
construction. Then the angle C O D is one-third of two right
angles and one-sixth of four right angles. Hence arc C D is one-
sixth of the circumference and the chord is a side of a regular
hexagon.

PROBLEM 17. To draw a line Tangent to a Circle at a
given point on the circumference.

With O as a center and a radius of about 1£ inches draw
the given circle. Assume some point P on the circumference
Join the point P with the center O and through P draw a line
F P perpendicular to P O. This may be done in any one of several
methods. Since P is the extremity of O P the method given in
Problem 6 of PLATE IV, may be used.

Produce P O to Q. With any center C, and a radius C P
draw an arc or circumference passing through P. Draw E F a
diameter of the circle whose center is C and through F and P
draw the tangent.

Proof. A line perpendicular to a radius at its extremity is
tangent to the circle.

PROBLEM 18- To draw a line Tangent to a Circle from a
point outside the circle.

With O as a center and a radius of about 1 inch draw the
given circle. Assume P some point outside of the circle about
21 inches from the center of the circle. Draw a straight line
passing through P and O. Bisect P O and with the middle
point F as a center describe the circle passing through P and O.
Draw a line through P and the intersection of the two circum-
ferences C. The line P C is tangent to the given circle. Simi-
larly P E is tangent to the circle.

Proof. The angle P C O is inscribed in a semi-circle and
hence is a right angle. Since P C O is a right angle P C is per-
pendicular to C O. The perpendicular to a radius at its extremity
is tangent to the circumference.

Inking. In inking PLATE VI the same method should be

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

followed as in previous plates. The name and address should be
lettered in inclined Gothic capitals as before.

PLATE VII.

Pencilling. PLATE VII should be laid out in the same
manner as previous plates. Six problems on the ellipse, spiral,
parabola and hyperbola are to be constructed in the six spaces.

PROBLEM 19. To draw an Ellipse when the Axes are
given.

Draw the lines L M and C D about 3^ and 2-| inches long
respectively. Let C D be perpendicular to M N at its middle
point P. Make C P = P D. These two lines are the axes. With
C as a center and a radius equal to" one-half the major axis or
equal to L P, draw the arc, cutting the major axis at E and F.
These two points are the foci. Now mark off any convenient
distances on P M, such as A, B and G.

With E as a center and a radius equal to L A, draw arcs
above and below L M. With F as a center, and a radius equal
to A M describe short arcs cutting those already drawn as shown
at N. With E as a center and a radius equal to L B draw arcs
above and below L M as before. With F as a center and a radius
equal to B M, draw arcs intersecting those already drawn as shown
at O. The point P and others are found by repeating the process.
The student is advised to find at least 12 points on the curve —
6 above and 6 below L M. These 12 points with L, C, M and
D will enable the student to draw the curve.'

After locating these points, a free hand curve passing through
them should be sketched.

PROBLEM 20. To draw an Ellipse when the two Axes are
given.

Second Method. Draw the two axes A B and P Q in the
same manner as for Problem 19. With O as a center and a radius
equal to one-half the major axis, describe the circumference A C
D E F B. Similarly with the same center and a radius equal to
one-half the minor axis, describe a circle. Draw any radii such
-as O C, O D, O E, OF, etc., cutting both circumferences. These
radii may be drawn with the 60 and 45 degree triangles. At the

MECHANICAL DRAWING. 27

points of intersection of the radii with the large circle C D E and
F, draw vertical lines and from the intersection of the radii with
the small circle C', D', E', and F', draw horizontal lines intersect-
ing the vertical lines. The intersections of these lines are points
on the curve.

As in Problem 19, a free hand curve should be sketched pass-
ing through these points. About five points in each quadrant
will be sufficient.

PROBLEM 21. To draw an Ellipse by means of a
Trammel.

As in the two preceding problems, draw the major and minor
axes, U V and X Y. Take a slip of paper having a straight
edge and mark off C B equal to one-half the major axis, and D B
one-half the minor axis. Place the slip of paper in various
positions keeping the point D on the major axis and the point 0
on the minor axis. If this is done the point B will mark various
points on the curve. Find as many points as necessary and sketch
the curve.

PROBLEM 22, To draw a Spiral of one turn in a circle.

Draw a circle with the center at O and a radius of 1|- inches.
Mark off on the radius O A, distances of one-eighth inch. As
O A is 1|- inches long there will be 12 of these distances. Draw
circles through these points. Now draw radii O B, O C, 0 D,
etc. each 30 degrees apart (use the 30 degree triangle). This
will divide the circle into 12 equal parts. The curve starts at the
center O. The next point is the intersection of the line O B and
the first circle. The third point is the intersection of O C and
the second circle. The fourth point is the intersection of O D
and the third circle. Other points are found in the same way.
Sketch in pencil the curve passing through these points.

PROBLEM 23. To draw a Parabola when the Abscissa and
Ordinate are given.

Draw the straight line A B about three inches long. This
line is the axis or as it is sometimes called the abscissa. At A
and B draw lines perpendicular to A B. Also with the T square
draw E C and F D, 11 inches above and below A B. Let A be

28 MECHANICAL DRAWING.

the vertex of the parabola. Divide A E into any number of
equal parts and divide E C into the same number of equal parts.
Through the points of division, R, S, T, U and V, draw horizontal
lines and connect L, M, N, O and P, with A. The intersections
of the horizontal lines with the oblique lines are points on the
curve. For instance, the intersection of A L and the line V is
one point and the intersection of A M and the line U is another.
The lower part of the curve A D is drawn in the same
manner.

PROBLEM 24. To draw a Hyperbola when the abscissa
E X, the ordinate A E and the diameter X Y are given.

Draw E F about 3 inches long and mark the point X, 1 inch
from E and the point Y, 1 inch from X0 With the triangle and
T square, draw the rectangles A B D C and O P Q R such that
A B is 1 inch in length and A C, 3 inches in length. Divide
A E into any number of equal parts and A B into the same num-
ber of equal parts. Draw L X, M X and N X ; also connect T,
U and V with Y. The first point on the curve is the intersection
A ; the next is the intersection of T Y and L X ; the third the
intersection of U Y and M X. The remaining points are found
in the same manner. The curve X C and the right-hand curve
P Y Q are found by repeating the process.

Inking. In inking the figures on this plate, use the French
or irregular curve and make full lines for the curves and their
axes. The construction lines should be dotted. Ink in all the
construction lines used in finding one-half of a curve, and in
Problems 19, 20, 23 and 24 leave all construction lines in pencil
except those inked. In Problems 21 and 22 erase all construction
lines not inked. The trammel used in Problem 21 may be drawn
in the position as shown, or it may be drawn outside of the ellipse
in any convenient place.

The same lettering should be done on this plate as on previous
plates.

PLATE VIII.

Pencilling. In laying out Plate VIII, draw the border lines
and horizontal and vertical center lines as in previous plates, to
divide the plate into four spaces for the four problems.

MECHANICAL DRAWING. 29

PROBLEM 25. To construct a Cycloid when the diameter
of the generating circle is given.

With O' as a center and a radius of | inch draw a circle, and
tangent to it draw the indefinite horizontal straight line A B.
Divide the circle into any number of equal parts (12 for instance)
and through these points of division C, D, E, F, etc., draw hori-
zontal lines. Now with the dividers set so that the distance
between the points is equal to the chord of the arc C D, mark off
the points L, M, N, O, P on the line A B, commencing at the
point H. At these points erect perpendiculars to the center line
G O'. This center line is drawn through the point O' with the
T square and is the line of centers of the generating circle as it
rolls along the line A B. Now with the intersections Q, R, S,
T, etc., of these verticals with the center line as centers describe
arcs of circles as shown. The points on the curve are the inter-
sections of these arcs and the horizontal lines drawn through the
points C, D, E, F, etc. Thus the intersection of the arc whose
center is Q and the horizontal line through C is a point I on the
curve. Similarly, the intersection of the arc whose center is R
and the horizontal line through D is another point J on the curve.
The remaining points, as well as those on the right-hand side, are
found in the same manner. To obtain great accuracy in this
curve, the circle should be divided into a large number of equal
parts, because the greater the number of divisions the less the error
due to the difference in length of a chord and its arc.

PROBLEM 26. To construct an Epicycloid when the di-
ameter of the generating circle and the diameter of the director
circle are given.

The epicycloid and hypocycloid may be drawn in the same
manner as the cycloid if arcs of circles are used in place of the
horizontal lines. With O as a center and a radius of | inch
describe a circle. Draw the diameter E F of this circle and pro-
duce E F to G such that the line F G is 2| inches long. With
G as a center and a radius of 2| inches describe the arc A B of
the director circle. With the same center G, draw the arc P Q
which will be the path of the center of the generating circle as it
rolls along the arc A B. Now divide the generating circle into

30 MECHANICAL DRAWING.

any number of equal parts (twelve for instance) and through the
points of division H, I, L, M, and N, draw arcs having G as a
center. With the dividers set so that the distance between the
points is equal to the chord H I, mark off distances on the
director circle A F B. Through these points of division R, S,
T, U, etc., draw radii intersecting the arc P Q in the points R', S',
T', etc., and witli these points as centers describe arcs of circles
as in Problem 25. The intersections of these arcs with the arcs
already drawn through the points H, I, L, M, etc., are points on
the curve. Thus the intersection of the circle whose center is R'
with the arc drawn through the point H is a point upon the curve.
Also the arc whose center is S' with the arc drawn through the
point I is another point on the curve. The remaining points are
found by repeating this process.

PROBLEM 27. To draw an Hypocycloid when -he diam-
eter of the generating circle and the radius of the director circle
are given.

With O as a center and a radius of 4 inches describe the arc
E F, which is the arc of the director circle. Now with the same
center and a radius of 3 J inches, describe the arc A B, which is the
line of centers of the generating circle as it rolls on the director
circle. With O' as a center and a radius of f inch describe the
generating circle. As before, divide the generating circle into
any number of equal parts (12 for instance) and with these points
of division L, M, N, O, etc., draw arcs having O as a center.
Upon the arc E F, lay off distances Q R, R S, S T, etc., equal to
the chord Q L. Draw radii from the points R, S, T, etc., to the
center of the director circle O and describe arcs of circles having a
radius equal to the radius of the generating circle, using the
points G, I, J, etc., as centers. As in Problem 26, the inter-
sections of the arcs are the points on the curve. By repeating
this process, the right-hand portion of the curve may be drawn.

PROBLEM 28. To draw the Involute of a circle whan the
diameter of the base circle is known.

With point O as a center and a radius of 1 inch, describe the
base circle. Now divide the circle into any number of equal parts
16 for instance) and connect the points of division with the cen-

MECHANICAL DRAWING. 31

ter of the circle by drawing the radii O C, O D, O E5 O F, etc.,
to O B. At the point D, draw a light pencil line perpendicular
to the radius O- D. This line will be tangent to the circle.
Similarly at the points E, F, G, H, etc., draw tangents to the
circle. Now set the dividers so that the distance between the
points will be equal to the chord of the arc C D, and measure this
distance from D along the tangent. Beginning with the point E,
measure on the tangent a distance equal to two of these chords,
from the point F measure on the tangent three divisions, and from
the point G measure a distance equal to four divisions on the
tangent G P. Similarly, measure distances on the remaining
tangents, each time adding the length of the chord. This will
give the points Q, R, S and T. Now sketch a light pencil line
through the points L, M, N, P, etc., to T. This curve will be the
involute of the circle.

Inking. The same rules are to be observed in inking PL A TE
VIII as were followed in the previous plates, that is, the curves
should be inked in a full line, using the French or irregular curve.
All arcs and lines used in locating the points on one-half of the
curve should be inked in dotted lines. The arcs and lines used in
locating the points of the other half of the curve may be left in
pencil in Problems 25 and 26. In Problem 28, all construction
lines should be inked. After completing the problems the same
lettering should be done on this plate as on previous plates.

MECHANICAL DRAWING

PART III.

PROJECTIONS.

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION.

Orthographic Projection is the art of representing objects of
three dimensions by views on two planes at right angles to each
other, in such a way that the forms and positions may be completely
determined. The two planes are called planes of projection or
co-ordinate planes, one being vertical and the other horizontal, as
shown in Fig. 1. These planes are sometimes designated V and H
respectively. The intersection of V and H is known as the ground
line G L.

The view or projection of the figure on the plane gives the
same appearance to the eye placed in a certain position that the
object itself does. This position
of the eye is at an infinite dist-
ance from the plane so that the
rays from it to points of a limited
object are all perpendicular to the
plane. Evidently then the view of
a point of the object is on the plane
and in the ray through the point Pig. l.

and the eye or where this perpendicular to the plane pierces it.

Let a, Fig. 1, be a point in space, draw a perpendicular from a
to Y. Where this line strikes the vertical plane, the projection of a
is found, namely at av. Then drop a perpendicular from a to the
horizontal plane striking it at «h, which is the horizontal projection
of the point. Drop a perpendicular from av to H; this will
intersect G L at o and be parallel and equal to the line a ah. In
the same way draw a perpendicular from ah to V, this also will
intersect G L at o and will be parallel and equal to a a7. In other
words, the perpendicular to G L from the projection of a point on
either plane equals the distance of the point from the other plane.
B in Fig. 1, shows a line in space. Bv is its V projection, and Bb

MECHANICAL DRAWING

its H projection, these being determined by finding views of points
at its ends and connecting the points.

Instead of horizontal projection and vertical projection, the
terms plan and elevation are commonly used.

Suppose a cube, one inch on a side, to be placed as in Fig. 2,
with the top face horizontal and the front face parallel to the
vertical plane. Then the plan will be a one-inch square, and the
elevation also a one-inch square. In general the plan is a repre-
sentation of the top of the object, and the elevation a view of the
front. The plan then is a top view, and the elevation a front view.

V <
^

£ z

lrt

Fig. 2.

Fig. 3.

Thus far the two planes have been represented at right angles
to each other, as they are in space. In order that they may be
shown more simply and on the one plane of the paper, H is
revolved about G L as an axis until it lies in the same plane as V
as shown in Fig. 2. The lines lb O and 2b N, being perpendicular
to G L, are in the same straight line as 5V O and 6V N, which also
are perpendicular to G L. That is — two views of a point are
always in a line perpendicular to 0 L. From this it is evident
that the plan must be vertically below the elevation, point for point.
Now looking directly at the two planes in the revolved position, we

MECHANICAL DRAWING

get a true orthographic projection of the cube as shown in Fig. 3.
All points on an object at the same height must appear in
elevation at the same distance above the ground line. If numbers
1, 2, 3, and 4 on the plan, Fig. 3, indicate the top corners of the
cube, then these four points, being at the same height, must be

4.v Qv

shown in elevation at the same height and at the top,-.^ and -^-_
The top of the cube, 1, 2, 3, 4, is shown in elevation as the straight line
-^ — _- . This illustrates the fact that if a surface is perpendicular

to either plane or projection, its projection on that plane is simply
a, line; a straight line if the surface is plane, a curved line if the
surface is curved. From the same figure it is seen that the top
edge of the cube, 1 4, has for its projection on the vertical plane

the point -^, the principle of which is stated in this way: If a

stra^gM vine is perpendicular to either V or H, its projection on
that plane is a point, and on the other plane is a line equal in
length to the line itself, and perpendicular to the ground line.

Fig. 4 is given as an exercise to help to show clearly the idea
of plan and elevation.

A = a point B" above H, and A" in front of V.

B = square prism resting on H, two of its faces parallel to V,

C = circular disc in space parallel to V.

D = triangular card in space parallel to V.

E = cone resting on its base on H.

F = cylinder perpendicular to V, and with one end resting against V.

G = line perpendicular to H.

H = triangular pyramid above H, with its base resting against V.

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

Suppose in Fig. 5, that it is desired to construct the pro-
jections of a prism 1|- in. square, and 2 in. long, standing on one
end on the horizontal plane, two of its faces being parallel to the
vertical plane. In the first place, as the top end of the prism is a
square, the top view or plan will ba a square of the same size,
that is, 1| in. Then since the prism is placed parallel to and in
front of the vertical plane the plan, 1^ in. square, will have two
edges parallel to the ground line. As the front face of the prism

ELEVATION

FRONT VIEW

1 1

1 I i

-— 4* — •

PLAN

TOP VIEW

Pig. 5.

is parallel to the vertical plane its projection on V will be a rect-
angle, equal in length and width to the length and width respec-
tively of the prism, and as the prism stands with its base on H,
the elevation, showing height above H, must have its base on the
ground line. Observe carefully that points in elevation are verti-
cally over corresponding points in plan.

The second drawing in Fig. 5 represents a prism of the same
size lying on one side on the horizontal plane, and with the ends
parallel to V.

The principles which have been used thus far may be stated
As follows, —

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

1. It' a line or point is on either plane, its other projection
must be in the ground line.

2. Height above H is shown in elevation as height above
the ground line, and distance in front of the vertical plane is shown
in plan as distance from the ground line.

3. If a line is parallel to either plane, its actual length is
shown on that plane, and its other projection is. parallel to the
ground line. A line oblique to either plane has its projection on
that plane shorter than the line itself, and its other projection
oblique to the ground line. No projection can be longer than the
line itself.

4. A plane surface if parallel to either plane, is shown on

Fig. 6.

Fig. 7.

th.it plane in its true size and shape ; if oblique it is shown
smaller than the true size, and if perpendicular it is shown as a
straight line. Lines parallel in space must have their V projec-
tions parallel to each other and also their H projections.

If two lines intersect, their projections must cross, since the
point of intersection of the lines is a point on both lines, and
therefore the projections of this point must be on the projections
of both lines, or at their intersection. In order that intersecting
lines may be represented, the vertical projections must intersect
in a point vertically above the intersection of the horizontal pro-

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

jections. Thus Fig. 6 represents two lines which do intersect as
O crosses D"at a point vertically above the intersection of Ch and
D&. In Fig. 7, however, the lines do not intersect since the inten-
sections of their projections do not lie in the same vertical line.

In Fig. 8 is given the plan and elevation of a square pyramid
standing on the horizontal plane. The height of the pyramid is
the distance A B. The slanting edges of the pyramid, AC, AD,
etc., must be all of the same length, since A is directly above the
center of the base. What this length
is, however,' does not appear in either
projection, as these edges are not
parallel to either V or H.

Suppose that the pyramid be
turned around into the dotted posi-
tion C, D, E, F, where the horizontal
projections of two of the slanting
edges, A C, and A E, are parallel to
the ground line. These two edges,
having their horizontal projections
parallel to the ground line, are now
parallel to V, and therefore their new
vertical projections will show their
true lengths. The base of the pyra-
mid is still on H, and therefore is
projected on V in the ground line.
The apex is in the same place as be-
fore, hence the vertical projection of
the pyramid in its new position is shown by the dotted lines. The
vertical projection A C,ris the true length of edge A C. Now if

we wish to find simply the true length of A C, it is unnecessaiy to
turn the whole pyramid around, as the one line A C will be sufficient.
The principle of finding the true length of lines is this, anu
can be applied to any case : Swing one projection of the line par-
allel to the ground line, using one end as center. On the other
projection the moving end remains at the same distance from the
ground line, and of course vertically above or below the same end
in its parallel position. This new projection of the line shows [is
true length. See the three Figures at the top of page 9.

10O

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

Third plane of projection or profile plane. A plane perpen-
dicular to both co-ordinate planes, and hence to the ground line, is

called a profile plane. This plane is vertical in position, and may
be used as a plane of projection. A projection on the profile plane
is called a profile view, or end view, or sometimes edge view, and
is often required in machine or other drawing when the plan and
elevation do not sufficiently give the shape and dimensions.

A projection on this plane is found in the same way as on the

V plane, that is, by perpendiculars drawn from points on the
object.

Since, however, the profile plane is perpendicular to the
ground line, it will be seen from the front and top simply as a

101

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

straight line; in order that the size and shape of the profile view
may be shown, the profile plane is revolved into V using its inter-
section with the vertical plane as the axis.

Given in Fig. 9, the line A B by its two projections A*7 Bp and
Ah B71, and given also the profile plane. Now by projecting the
line on the profile by peipendiculars, the points A,* B,*7 and B,fc A,fc
are found. Revolving the profile plane like a door on its hinges, al)
points in the plane will move in horizontal circles, so the horizontal
projections A,71 and B,71 will move in arcs of circles with O as center
to the ground line, and the vertical projections B," and A," will move
in lines parallel to the ground line to positions directly above the
revolved points in the ground line, giving the profile view of the
line Ap Bp. Heights, it will be seen, are the same in profile view

as in elevation. By referring to
the rectangular prism in the same
figure, we see that the elevation
gives vertical dimensions and those
parallel to V, while the end view
shows vertical dimensions and
those perpendicular to V. The
profile view of any object may be
found as shown for the line A B
by taking one point at a time.

In Fig. 10 there is repre-
sented a rectangular prism or
block, whose length is twice the
width. The elevation shows its
height. As the prism is placed at
an angle, three of the vertical edges will be visible, the fourth
one being invisible.

In mechanical drawing lines or edges which are invisible are
drawn dotted. The edges which in projection form a part of the
outline or contour of the figure must always be visible, hence
always/w7,7, lines. The plan shows what lines are visible in eleva-
tion, and the elevation determines what are visible in plan. In
Fig. 10, the plan shows that the dotted edge A B is the back edge,
and in Fig. 11, the dotted edge C D is found, by looking at the
elevation, to be the lower edge of the triangular prism. In general,

Fig. 10.

102

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

if in elevation an edge projected within the figure is a back edge,
it must be dotted, and in plan if an edge projected within the
outline is a lower edge it is dotted.

Fig. 12 is a circular cylinder with the length vertical and

Fig. 11.

with a hole part way through as shown in elevation. Fig. 13 is
plan, elevation and end view of a triangular prism with a square
hole from end to end. The plan and elevation alone would be
insufficient to determine positively the shape of the hole, but the
end view shows at a glance that it is square.

In Fig. 14 is shown plan and elevation of the frustum of a
square pyramid, placed with its base on the horizontal plane. If the
frustum is turned through 80°, as shown in the plan of Fig. 15,
the top view or plan must still be the same shape and size, and as
the frustum has not been raised or lowered, the heights of all
points must appear the same in elevation as before in Fig. 14.
The elevation is easily found by projecting points up from the
plan, and projecting the height of the top horizontally across from
the first elevation, because the height does not change.

The same principle is further illustrated in Figs. 16 and 17.
The elevation of Fig. 16 shows a square prism resting on one edge,
and raised up at an angle of 30° on the right-hand side. The

103

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

plan gives the width or thickness, | in. Notice that the length of
the plan is greater than 2 in. and that varying the angle at

Fig. 12.

Fig. 13.

which the prism is slanted would change the length of the plan.
Now if the prism be turned around through any angle with the
vertical plane, the lower edge still being on H, and the inclination

Fig. 14.

Fig. 15.

of 30° with H remaining the same, the plan must remain the same
size and shape.

If the angle through which the prism be turned is 45°, we

104

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

have the second plan, exactly the same shape and size as the first
The elevation is found by projecting the corners of the prism vei>

. 16.

tically up to the heights of the same points in the first elevation.
All the other points are found in the same way as point No. 1.

Fig. 17.

Three positions of a rectangular prism are shown in Fig. 17.
In the first view, the prism stands on its base, its axis therefore

105

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

is parallel to the vertical plane. In the second position, the axis is
still parallel to V and one corner of the base is on the horizontal
plane. The prism has been turned as if on the line 1A ~[v as an
axis, so that the inclination of all the faces of the prisrn to the
vertical plane remains the same as before. That is, if in the first
figure the side A B C D makes an angle of 30° with the vertical,
the same side in the second position still makes 30° with the ver-

Fig. 18.

tical plane. Hence the elevation of No. 2 is the same shape and size
as in the first case. The plan is found by projecting the corners
down from the elevation to meet horizontal lines projected across
from the corresponding points in the first plan. The third posi-
tion shows the prism with all its faces and edges making the same
angles with the horizontal as in the second position, but with the
plan at a different angle with the ground line. The plan then is
the same shape and size as in No. 2, and the elevation is found by
projecting up to the same heights as shown in the proceeding
elevation. This principle may be applied to any solid, whether
bounded by plane surfaces or curved.

This principle as far as it relates to heights, is the same that
was used for profile views. Ail end view is sometimes necessary
before the plan or elevation of an object can be drawn. Suppose
that in Fig. 18 we wish to draw the plan and elevation of a tri-
angular prism 3" long, the end of which is an equilateral triangle

106

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

1£" on each side. The prism is lying on one of its three faces on
H, and inclined toward the vertical plane at an angle of 30°. We

are able to draw the plan at
once, because the width will be
1| inches, and the top edge will
be projected half way between
the other two. The length of
the prism will also be shown.
Before we can draw the elevation,
we must find the height of the
top edge. This height, however,
must be equal to the altitude of
the triangle forming the end of

Fig. 19. the prism. All that is necessary,

then, is to construct an equilat-
eral triangle 1^" on each side, and measure its altitude.

A very convenient way to do this is shown in the figure by
laying one end of the prism down on H. A similar construction
is shown in Fig. 19, but with one face of the prism on V instead
of on H.

In all the work thus far the plan has been drawn below and
the elevation above. This order is sometimes inverted and the
plan put above the elevation, but the plan still remains a top view
no matter where placed, so that after some practice it makes but
little difference to the draughtsman which method is employed.

SHADE LINES.

It is often the case in machine drawing that certain lines or
edges are made heavier than others. These heavy lines are called
shade lines, and are used to improve the appearance of the draw-
ing, and also to make clearer in some cases the shape of the
object. The shade lines are not put on at random, but according
to some system. Several systems are in use, but only that one
which seems most consistent wiH be described. The shade lines
are lines or edges separating light faces from dark ones, assuming
the light always to come in a direction parallel to the dotted
diagonal of the cube shown in Fig. 20. The direction of the
light, then, may be represented on H by a line at 45C running

107

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

backward to the right and on V by a 45° line sloping downward
and to the right. Considering the cube in Fig. 20, if the light
comes in the direction indicated, it is evident that the front, left-
hand side and top will be light, and the bottom, back and right-
hand side dark. On the plan, then, the shade lines will be the
back edge 1 2 and the right-hand edge 2 3, because these edges
are between light faces and dark ones. On the elevation, since
the front is light, and the right-hand side and bottom dark, the edges
3 7 and 8 7 are shaded. As the direction of the light is represented
on the plan by 45° lines and on the elevation also by 45° lines,

Fig. 20.

we may use the 45° triangle with the T-square to determine
the light and dark surfaces, and hence the shade lines. If
the object stands on the horizontal plane, the 45° triangle is used
on the plan, as shown in Fig. 21, but if the length is perpen-
dicular to the vertical plane, the 45° triangle is used on the eleva-
tion, as shown in Fig. 22. This is another way of saying that the
45° triangle is used on that projection of the object which shows
the end. By applying the triangle in this way we determine the
light and dark surfaces, and then put the shade lines between
them. Dotted lines, however, are never shaded, so if a line
which is between a light and a. dark surface is invisible it is not

108

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

shaded. In Fig. 21 the plan shows the end of the solid, hence the
45° triangle is used in the direction indicated by the arrows.

This shows that the light strikes the left-hand face, but not
the back or the right-hand. The top is known to be light with-

Fig. 21.

Fig. 22.

out the triangle, as the light comes downward, so the shade edges
on the plan are the back and right-hand. On the elevation two
faces of the prism are visible ; one is light, the other dark, hence
the edge between is shaded. The left-hand edge, being between
a light face and a dark one is a shade line. The right-hand face
is dark, the top of the prism is light, hence the upper edge of this
face is a shade line. The right-hand edge is not shaded, because
by referring to the plan, it is seen to be between two dark
surfaces. In shading a cylinder or a cone the same rule is fol
lowed, the only difference being that as the surface is curved, the
light is tangent, so an element instead of an edge marks the
separation of the dark from the light, and is not shaded. The
elements of a cylinder or cone should never be shaded, but the
bases may. In Fig. 23, Nos. 3 and 4, the student should carefully
notice the difference between the shading of the cone and cylinder.

109

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

If in No. 4 the cone were inverted, the opposite half of the base
would be shaded, for then the base would be light, whereas it is
now dark. In Nos. 7 and 8 the shade lines of a cylinder and a
circular hole are contrasted.

In No. 7 it is clear that the light would strike inside on the
further side of the hole, commencing half way where the 45° lines

1234

5678

Fig. 23.

are tangent. The other half of the inner surface would be dark,
hence the position of the shade line. The shade line then enables
us to tell at a glance whether a circle represents a hub or boss, or
depression or hole. Fig. 24 represents plan, elevation and profile
view of a square prism. Here as before, the view showing the
end is the one used to determine the light and dark surfaces, and
then the shade lines put in accordingly.

110

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

In putting on the shade lines, the extra width of line is put
inside the figure, not outside. In shading circles, the shade line
is made of varying width, as shown in the figures. The method
of obtaining this effect by the compass is to keep the same radius,
but to change the center slightly in a direction parallel to the rays
of light, as shown at A and B in No. 2 of Fig. 24.

No. 2.

Fig. 24.

INTERSECTION AND DEVELOPriENT.

If one surface meets another at some angle, an intersection is
produced. Either surface may be plane, or curved. If both are
plane, the intersection is a straight line ; if one is curved, the
intersection is a curve, except in a few special cases ; and if both
are curved, the intersection is usually curved.

In the latter case, the entire curve does not always lie in the
same planes. If all points of any curve" lie in the same plane, it
is called a plane curve. A plane intersecting a curved surface
must always give either a plane curve or a straight line.

In Fig. 25 a square pyramid is cut by a plane A parallel to the
horizontal. This plane cuts from the pyramid a four-sided figure,
the four corners of which will be the points where A cuts the four
slanting edges of the solid. The plane intersects edge o I at point 4=v
in elevation. This point must be found in plan vertically below on

111

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

the horizontal- projection of line o 5, that is, at point 4^. Edge
o e is directly in front of o 5, so is shown in elevation as the same
line, and plane A intersects o e at point 1» in elevation, found in
plan at 1A Points 3 and 2 are obtained in the same way- The
intersection is shown in plan as the square 1234, which is also
its true size as it is parallel to the horizontal plane. In a

similar way the sections are found
in Figs. 26 and 27. It will be
seen that in these three cases
where the planes are parallel to
the bases, the sections are of the
same shape as the bases, and have
their sides parallel to the edges of
the bases.

It is an invariable rule that
when such a solid is cut by a plane
parallel to its base, the section is
a figure of the same shape as the
base. If then in Fig. 28 a right
cone is intersected by a plane
parallel to the base the section
must be a circle, the center of
which in plan coincides with the apex. The radius must
equal o d.

In Figs. 29 and 30 the cutting plane is not parallel to the base,
hence the intersection will not be of the same shape as the base.
The sections are found, however, in exactly the same manner as
in the previous figures, by projecting the points where the plane
intersects the edges in elevation on to the other view of the same
line.

INTERSECTION OF PLANES WITH CONES OR CYLINDERS.

Sections cut by a plane from a cone have already been de-
fined as conic sections. These sections may be either of the fol-
lowing: two straight lines, circle, ellipse, parabola, h\"perbola.
All except the parabola and hyperbola may also be cut from a
cylinder.

Methods have previously been given for constructing the

Fig. 25.

112

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

Fig. 26.

Fig. 27.

Fig. 30.

113

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

ellipse, parabola and hyperbola without projections; it will now
be shown that they may be obtained as actual intersections.

In Fig. 31 the plane cuts the cone obliquely. To find
points on the . curve in plan take a series of horizontal planes

Fig. 81.

x y z etc., between points <?p and d*>. One of these planes, as w,
should be taken through the center of c d. The points c and d
must be points on the curve, since the plane cuts the two contour
elements at these points. The horizontal projections of the contouf
elements will be found in a horizontal line passing through the center
of the base ; hence the hoiizontal projection of c and d will be
found on this center line, and will be the extreme ends of the
curve. Contour elements are those forming the oufline.

114

MECHANICAL DRAWING. 23

The plane x cuts the surface of the cone in a circle, as it is
parallel to the base, and the diameter of the circle is the distance
between the points where x crosses the two contour elements.
This circle, lettered x on the plan, has its center at the horizontal
projection of the apex. The circle x and the curve cut by the plane
are both on the surface of the cone, and their vertical projec-
tions intersect at the point 2. Also the circle x and the curve
must cross twice, once on the front of the cone and once on the
back. Point 2 then represents two points which are shown in
plan directly beneath on the circle z, and are points on the re-
quired intersection. Planes y and 2, and as many more as may
be necessary to determine the curve accurately, are used in the
same way. The curve found is an ellipse. The student will
readily see that the true size of this ellipse is not shown in the
plan, for the plane containing the curve is not parallel to the
horizontal.

In order to find the actual size of the ellipse, it is necessary
to place its plane in a position parallel either to the vertical or to
the horizontal. The actual length of the long diameter of the
ellipse must be shown in elevation, c» d", because the line is
parallel to the vertical plane. The plane of the ellipse then may
be revolved about c^ dv as an axis until it becomes parallel to V,
when its true size will be shown. For the sake of clearness of
construction, c» d» is imagined moved over to the position a1 d',
parallel to cv do. The lines 1 — 1, 2 — 2, 3 — 3 on the plan show the
true width of the ellipse, as these lines are parallel to H, but are
projected closer together than their actual distances. In elevation
these lines are shown as the points 1, 2, 3. at their true distance
apart. Hence if the ellipse is revolved -iro'inu its axis c° dv, th.3
distances 1—1, 2 — 2, 3 — 3 will appear perpendicular to cv dv, and
the true size of the figure be shown. This construction is made on
the left, where V — 1', 2' — 2' and 3' — 3' are equal in length to 1 — 1,
2 — 2, 3 — 3 on the plan.

In Fig. 32 a plane cuts a cylinder obliquely. This is a
simpler case, as the horizontal projection of the curve coincides
with the base of the cylinder. To obtain the true size of the
section, which is an ellipse, any number of points are assumed on
the plan and projected up on the cutting plane, at 1, 2, 3, etc.

115

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

The lines drawn through these points perpendicular to 1 7 are
made equal in length to the corresponding distances 2' — 2', 3' — 3'
etc., on the plan, because 2' — 2' is the true width of curve at 2.
If a cone is intersected by a plane which is parallel to only

one of the elements, as in
Fig. 33, the resulting curve
is the parabola, the construc-
tion of which is exactly simi-
lar to that for the ellipse as
given in Fig. 31. If the
intersecting plane is parallel
to more than one element, or
is parallel to the axis of the
cone, a hyperbola is produced.
In Fig. 34, the vertical
plane A is parallel to the axis
of the cone. In this instance
the curve when found will
appear in its true size, as
plane A is parallel to the
vertical. Observe that the
highest point of the curve is
found by drawing the circle
X on the plan tangent to the
given plane. One of the
points where this circle crosses
the diameter is projected up
to the contour element of the
cone, and the horizontal plane X drawn. Intermediate planes
Y, Z, etc., are chosen, and corresponding circles drawn in plan.
The points where these circles are crossed by the plane A are
points on the curve, and these points are projected up to the
elevation on the planes Y, Z, etc.

DEVELOPflENTS.

The development of a surface is the true size and shape ot
the surface extended or spread out on a plane. If the surface to
be developed is of such a character that it may be flattened out

116

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

without tearing or folding, we obtain an exact development, as in
case of a cone or cylinder, prism or pyramid. If this cannot be
done, as with the sphere, the development is only approximate.

In order to find the development of the rectangular prism in
Fig 35, the back face, 1 2 7 6, is supposed to be placed in contact

with some plane, then the prism turned on the edge 2 7 until the
'side 2387 is in contact with the same plane, then this continued
until all four faces have been placed on the same plane. The
rectangles 1432 and 6785 are for the top and bottom respec-
tively. The development then is the exact size and shape of a
covering for the prism. If a rectangular hole is cut through the
prism, the openings in the front and back faces will be shown in
the development in the centers of the two broad faces.

The development of a right prism, then, consists of as many

117

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

rectangles joined together as the prism has sides, these rectangles
being the exact size of the faces of the prism, and in addition two
polygons the exact size of the bases. It will be found helpful in
developing a solid to number or letter all of the corners on the

projections, then
designate each face
when developed in
the same way as in
the figure.

If a cone be
placed on its side on
a plane surface, one
element will rest on
the surface. If now
the cone be rolled on
the plane, the vertex
remaining stationary,
until the same ele-
ment is in contact
again, ths space rolled
over will represent
the development of
the convex surface
of the cone. A, Fig.
36, is a cone cut by a
plane parallel to the
base. In B, let the
vertex of the cone be
placed at V, and one element of the cone coincide with V A I.
The length of this element is taken from the elevation A, of
either contour element. All of the elements of the cone are of
the same length, so when the cone is rolled each point of the base
as it touches the plane will be at the same distance from the
vertex. From this it follows that the development of the base
will be the arc of a circle of radius equal to the length of an
element. To find the length of this arc which is equal to the
distance around the base, divide the plan of the circumference
of the base into any number of equal parts, a» twelve, then

Fig. 34.

118

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

with the length of one of these parts as radius, lay off twelve
spaces, 1. ...13, join 1 and 13 with V, and the sector is the development
of the cone from vertex to base. To represent on the development

Fig. 35.

the circle cut by the section plane, take as radius the length of
the element from the vertex to D, and with V as center describe

Fig. 36.

an arc. The development of the frustum of the cone will be the
portion of the circular ring. This of course does nob include the

119

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

development of the bases, which would be simply two circles the
same sizes as shown in plan.

A and B, Fig. 37, represent the plan and elevation of a
regular triangular pyramid and its development. If face C is
placed on the plane its true size will be shown at C in the devel-
opment. The true length of the base of triangle C is shown in
the plan. The slanting edges, however, not being parallel to the
vertical, are not shown in elevation in their true length. It be-
comes necessary then* to find the true length of one of these edges
as shown in Fig. 6, after which the triangle may be irawn in its
full size at C in the development. As the pyramid is regular,
three equal triangles as shown developed at C, D and E, together
with the base F, constitute the development.

If a right circular cylinder is to be developed, or rolled upon
a plane, the elements, being parallel, will appear as parallel lines,

Fig. 87.

and the base, being perpendicular to the elements, will develop as
a straight line perpendicular to the elements. The width of the
development will be the distance around the cylinder, or the cir-
cumference of the base. The base of the cylinder in Fig. 38, is
divided into twelve equal parts, 123, etc. Commencing at point
1 on the development these twelve equal spaces are laid along
the straight line^ giving the development of the base of the cylin-
der, and the total width. To find the development of the curve
cut by the oblique plane, draw in elevation the elements corre-
sponding to the various divisions of the base, and note the points

120

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

where they intersect the oblique plane. As 'we roll the cylinder
beginning at point 1, the successive elements 1, 12, 11, etc., will
appear at equal distances apart, and equal in length to the lengths
of the same elements in elevation. Thus point number 10 on the
development of the curve is found by projecting horizontally across
from 10 in elevation. It will be seen that the curve is symmetri-
cal, the half on the left of 7 being similar to that on the right.
The development of any curve whatever on the surface of the
cylinder may be found in the same manner.

: The principle of cylinder development is used in laying out
elbow joints, pipe ends cut off obliquely, etc. In Fig. 39 is shown
plan and elevation of a three-piece elbow and collar, and develop-

I 12 11 10 9 Q 7 6 5 4 3 2 J

Fig. 88.

ments of the four pieces. In order to construct the various parts
making up the joint, it is necessary to know what shape and size
must be marked out on the flat sheet metal so that when cut out
and rolled up the three pieces will form cylinders with the ends
fitting together as required. Knowing the kind of elbow desired,
we first draw the plan and elevation, and from these make the
developments. Let the lengths of the three pieces A, B and C
be the same on the upper outside contour of the elbow, the piece
B at an angle of 45°; the joint between A and B bisects the
angle between the two lengths, and in the same way the joint
between B and C. The lengths A and C will then be the same,

121

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

and one pattern will answer for both. The development of A
is made exactly as just explained for Fig. 38, and this is also the
development of C.

It should be borne in mind that in developing a cylinder we
must always have a base at right angles to the elements, and if
the cylinder as given does not have such a base, it becomes neces-
sary to cut the cylinder by a plane perpendicular to the elements,
and use the intersection as a base. This point must be clearly
understood in order to proceed intelligently. A section at right
angles to the elements is the only section which will unroll in a

Fig. 39.

straight line, and is therefore the section from which we must
work in developing other sections. As B has neither end at right
angles to its length, the plane X is drawn at the middle and per-
pendicular to the length. B is the same diameter pipe as C and
A, so the section cut by X will be a circle of the same diameter
as the base of A, and its development is shown at X.

From the points where the elements drawn on the elevation
of A meet the joint between A and B, elements are drawn on B,

122

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

which are equally spaced around B the same as on A. The spaces
then laid off along X are the same as given on the plan of A,
Commencing with the left-hand element in B, the length of the
upper element between X and the top corner of the elbow is laid
off above X, giving the first point in the development of the end
of B fitting with C. The lengths of the other elements in the
elevation of B are measured in the same way and laid off from X.
The development of the
other end of the piece
B is laid off below X,
using the same distances,
since X is half way be-
tween the ends. The
development of, the
collar is simply the de.
velopment of the frus-
tum of a cone, which has
already been explained,
Fig. 36. The joint be-
tween B and C is shown
in plan as an ellipse, the
construction of which
the student should be
able to understand from
a study of the figure.

The intersection of
a rectangular prism and
pyramid is shown in Fig. 40. The base b c d e of the pyramid is
shown dotted in plan, as it is hidden by the prism. All four edges
of the pyramid pass through the top of the prism, 1, 2, 3, 4. As
the top of the prism is a horizontal plane, the edges of the pyramid
are shown passing through the top in elevation at x* g* Jc" {». These
four points might be projected to the plan on the four edges of the
pyramid ; but it is unnecessary to project more than one, since the
general principle applies here that if a cone, pyramid, prism or
cylinder be cut by a plane parallel to the base, the section is a
figure parallel and similar to the base. The one point xv is there-
fore projected down to a b in plan, giving xh^ and with this a<j

Fig. 40.

123

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

one corner, the square %h gl1 ih kh is drawn, its sides parallel to the
edges of the base. This square is the intersection of the pyramid
with the top of the prism.

The intersection of the pyramid with the bottom of the prism
is found in like manner, by taking the point where one edge of
the pyramid as a b passes through the bottom of the prism shown
in elevation as point w», projecting down to mh on ah W, and
drawing the square mh njl oh ph parallel to the base of the pyramid.
These two squares constitute the entire intersection of the two
solids, the pyramid going through the bottom and coming out at
the top of the prism. As much of the slanting edges of the

Fig. 41.

pyramid as are above the prism will be seen in plan, appearing as
the diagonals of the small square, and the rest of the pyramid,
being below the top surface of the prism, will be dotted in plan.
Fig. 41 is the development of the rectangular prism, show-
ing the openings in the top and bottom surfaces through which
the pyramid passed. The development of the top and bottom,
back and front faces will be four rectangles joined together, the
same sizes as the respective faces. Commencing with the bottom
face 5678, next would come the back face 6127, then the top,
etc. The rectangles at the ends of the top face 1234 are the
ends of the prism. These might have been joined on any other

124

MECHANICAL DRAWING. 33

face as well. Now find the development of the square in the bottom
5678. As the size will be the same as in projection, it only re-
mains to determine its position. This position, however, will
have the same relation to the sides of the rectangle as in the plan.
The center of the square in this case is in the center of the face.
To transfer the diagonals of the square to the development, extend
them in plan to intersect the edges of the prism in points 9, 10,
11 and 12. Take the distance from 5 to 9 along the edge 5 6,
and lay it on the development from 5 along 5 6, giving point 9.
Point 10 located in the same way and connected with 9, gives the
position of one diagonal. The other diagonal is obtained in a
similar way, then the square constructed on these diagonals. The
same method is used for locating the small square on the top face.

If the intersection of a cylinder and prism is to be found, we
may either obtain the points where elements of the cylinder pierce
the prism, or where edges and lines parallel to edges on, the sur-
face of the prism cut the cylinder.

A series of parallel planes may also be taken cutting curves
from the cylinder and straight lines from the prism ; the intersec-
tions give points on the intersection of the two solids.

Fig. 42 represents a triangular prism intersecting a cylinder.
The axis of the prism is parallel to V and inclined to H. Starting
with the size and shape of the base, this is laid off at a{ bh ch, and
the altitude of the triangle taken and laid off at av c° in elevation,
making right angles with the inclination of the axis to H. The
plan of the prism is then constructed-. To find the intersection of
the two solids, lines are drawn oh the surface of the prism parallel
to the length and the points where these lines and the edges
pierce the cylinder are obtained and joined, giving the curve.

The top edge of the prism goes into the top of the cylinder.
This point will be shown in elevation, since the top of the cylinder
is a plane parallel to H and perpendicular to V, and therefore
projected on V as a straight line. The upper edge, then, is found
to pass into the top of the cylinder at point 0, ov and oh. The
intersection of the two upper faces of the prism with the top of
the cylinder will be straight lines drawn from point o and will be
shown in plan. If we can find where another line of the surface
o a b 14 pierces the upper base of the cylinder, this point joined

123

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

with o will determine the intersection of this face with the top of
the cylinder. A surface may always be produced, if necessary,
to find an intersection.

Edge a b pierces the plane of the top of the cylinder at point

d> seen in elevation ; therefore the line joining this point with o is
the intersection of one upper face of the prism with the upper

126

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

base of the cylinder. The only'part of this line needed, of course,
is within the actual limits of the base, that is o 9. The intersec-
tion o 8 of the other top face is found by the same method. On
the convex surface of the cylinder there will be three curves, one
for each face of the prism. Points b and 9 on the upper base of
the cylinder, will be where the curves for the two upper faces will
begin. The point d is found on the revolved position of the base
at dp and d\ b is divided into the equal parts dt — e,, «, — /, etc.,
which revolve back to dh, eh,fh and gh. The divisions are made
equal merely for convenience in developing. The vertical pro-
jections of c?, e, etc., are found on the vertical projection of a 6,
directly above dh, e\ etc., or may be found by taking from the
revolved position of the base, the perpendiculars from d{ e, etc., to
ch bh and laying them off in elevation from bv along bv av. Lines
such as/ 12, m 5, etc., parallel to' a o are drawn in plan and eleva-
tion. Points ih Tch mh nh are taken directly behind dh ehfhgh
hence their vertical projections coincide. Points nt w, 7c, and i, are
formed by projecting across from nh mh kh and ih.

The convex surface of the cylinder is perpendicular to H, so
the points where the lines on the prism pierce it will be projected
on plan as the points where these lines cross the circle, 14, 13, 12,

11 3. The vertical projections of these -points are found on

the corresponding lines in elevation, and the curves drawn through.
The curve 3, 4.. ..8 must be dotted, as it is on the back of the
cylinder. The under face of the prism, which ends with the line
b c, is perpendicular to the vertical plane, so the curve of intersec-
tion will be projected on V as a straight line. Point 14 is one
end of this curve. 3 the other end, and the curve is projected in
elevation as the straight line from 14 to the point where the lower
edge of the prism crosses the contour element of the cylinder.

Fig. 43 gives the development of the right-hand half of the
cylinder, beginning with number 1 . As previously explained, the
distance between the elements is shown in the plan, as 1 — 2, 2 — 3,
3 — 4 and so on. These spaces are laid off in the development
along a straight line representing the development of the base,
and from these points the elements are drawn perpendicularly.

The lengths of the elements in the development from the base
to the curve are exactly the same as on the elevation, as the

127

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

elevation gives the true lengths. If then the development of the
base is laid off along the same straight line. as the vertical projec-
tion of the base, the points in elevation may be projected across
with the T-square to the corresponding elements in the develop-
ment. The points on the curve cut by the under face of the
prism are on the same elements as the other curves, and their
vertical projections are on the under edge of the prism, hence
these points are projected across for the development of the lower
curve.

In Fig. 44 is given the development of the prism from the
right-hand end as far as the intersection with the cylinder, begin-

Fig. 44.

ning at the left with the top edge a o, the straight line a b c a
.being the development of the base. As this must be the actual
distance around the base, the length is taken from the true size
of the base, a, bh ch. The parallel lines drawn on the surfaces of
the prism must appear on the development their true distances
apart, hence the distances a, d\, d\ e^ etc., are made equal to
a (7, d e, etc. on the development. The actual distances between the
parallel lines on the bottom face of the prism are shown along
the edge of the base, bh ch. Perpendicular lines are drawn from
the points of division on the development.

The position of the developed curve is found by laying off
the true lengths on the perpendiculars. These' true lengths (of
the parallel lines) are not shown in plan, as the lines are not
parallel to the horizontal plane, but are found in elevation. The
length oa on the development is equal to av ov, d 10 to dv 1 0, and

128

MECHANICAL DKAWING

so on for all the rest. Point 9 is found as follows: on the projec-
tions, the straight line from o to d passes through point 9, and the
true distance from o to 9 is shown in plan. All that is necessary,
then, is to connect o and d on the development, and lay off from o
the distance 0h9. Number 8 is found in the same way.

ISOMETRIC PROJECTION.

Heretofore an object has been represented by two or more
projections. Another system, called isometrical drawing, is used
to show in one view the three dimensions of an object, length (or
height), breadth, and thickness. An isometrical drawing of an
object, as a cube, is called for brevity the " isometric " of the cube.

Fig. 45.

To obtain a view which shows the three dimensions in such a
way that measurements can be taken from them, draw the cube in
the simple position shown at the left of Fig. 45, in which
it rests on H with two faces parallel to V; the diagonal from the
front upper right-hand corner to the back lower left-hand corner is
indicated by the dotted line. Swing the cube around until the
diagonal is parallel with V as shown in the second position. Here
the front face is at the right. In the third position the lower end
of the diagonal has been raised so that it is parallel to H, becoming
thus parallel to both planes. The plan is found by the principles
of projection, from the elevation and the preceding plan. The front
face is now the lower of the two faces shown in the elevation.
From this position the cube is swung around, using the corner

129

MECHANICAL DKAWING

resting on the H as a pivot, until the diagonal is perpendicular
to V but still parallel to H. The plan remains the same, except as
regards position; while the elevation, obtained by projecting across
from the previous elevation, gives the isometrical projection of the
cube. The front face is now at the left.

In the last position, as one diagonal is perpendicular to V, it
follows that all the faces of the cube make equal angles with V,
hence are projected on that plane as equal parallelograms. For the
same reason all the edges of the cube are projected in elevation in
equal lengths, but, being inclined to V, appear shorter than they
actually are on the object. Since they are all equally foreshortened
and since a drawing may be made at any scale, it is customary to

make all the isometrical lines of a
drawing full length. This will give
the same proportions, and is much
the simplest method. Herein lies
the distinction between an isomet-
rical projection and an isometric
drawing.

It will be noticed that the
figure can be inscribed in a circle,
and that the outline is a perfect
hexagon. Hence the lines showing
breadth and length are 30° lines,
while those showing heigh* are
vertical.

Fig. 46 shows the isometric of a cube, 1 iocb square. All of
the edges are shown in their true length, hence all the surfaces
appear of the same size. In the figure the edges of the base are
inclined at 30° with a T-square line, but this is not always the case.
For rectangular objects, such as prisms, cubes, etc., the base
edges are at 30° only when the prism or cube is supposed to be in
the simplest possible position. The cube in Fig. 46 is supposed to
bo in the position indicated by plan and elevation in Fig. 47, that
is, standing on its base, with two faces parallel to the vertical
plane.

If the isometric of the cube in the position of Fig. 48 were
required, it could not be drawn with the base edges at 30°; neither'

Fig. 46.

130

MECHANICAL DRAWING

would these edges appear in their true lengths. It follows, then,
that in isometrical drawing, true lengths appear only as 30° lines
or as vertical lines. Edges or lines that in actual projection are
either parallel to the ground line or perpendicular to V, are drawn
in isometric as 30° lines, full length; and those that are actually
vertical are made vertical in isometric, also full length.

In Fig. 45, lines such as the front vertical edges of the cube
and the two base edges are called the three isometric axes. The
isometric of objects in oblique positions, as in Fig. 48, can be con-

Fig. 47. Fig. 48.

structed only by reference to their projections, by methods which
will be explained later.

In isometric drawing small rectangular objects are more satis-
factorily represented than large curved ones. In woodwork, mor-
tises and joints and various parts of framing are well shown in
isometric. This system is used also to give a kind of bird's-eye
view of the mills or factories. It is also used in making sketches
of small rectangular pieces of machinery, where it is desirable to
give shape and dimensions in one view.

In isometric drawing the direction of the ray of light is
parallel to that diagonal of a cube which runs from the upper left
corner to the lower right corner, as 4V-7V in the last elevation of
Fig. 45. This diagonal is at 30° ; hence in isometrical drawing
the direction of the light is at 30° downward to the right. From

131

MECHANICAL DRAWING

this it follows that the top and two left-hand faces of the cube are
light, the others dark. This explains the shade lines in Fig. 45.

In Fig. 45, the top end of the diagonal which is parallel to the
ray of light in the first position is marked 4, and traced through
to the last or isometrical projection, 4V. It will be seen that face
3V 4V 5V 8V of the isometric projection is the front face of the cube
in the first view; hence we may consider the left front face of the
isometric cube as the front. This is not absolutely necessary,
but by so doing the isometric shade edges are exactly the same
as on the original projection.

Fig. 49. Fig. 50.

Fig. 49 shows a cube with circles inscribed in the top and
two side faces. The isometric of a circle is an ellipse, the exact
construction of which would necessitate finding a number of points ;
for this reason an approximate construction by arcs of circles is
often made. In the method of Fig. 49, four centers are used.
Considering the upper face of the cube, lines are drawn from the
obtuse angles/" and e, to the centers of the opposite sides.

The intersections of these lines give points g and A, which
serve as centers for the ends of the ellipse. With center g and
radius g a, the arc a d is drawn; and with/" as center and radius
f d, the arc d c is described, and the ellipse finished by using
centers Ji and e. This construction is applied to all three faces.

Fig. 50 is the isometric of a cylinder standing on its base.

132

MECHANICAL DRAWING

Notice that the shade line on the top begins and ends where

T-square lines would be tangent to the curve, and similarly in the

case of the part shown on the base. The explanation of the shad?

is very similar to that in pro- <*,

jections. Given in projections

a cylinder standing on its

base, the plan is a circle, and

the shade line is determined

by applying the 45° triangle

tangent to the circle. This is

done because the 45° line is

the projection of the ray of

light on the plane of the

base.

In Fig. 49, the diagonal m I may represent the .ray of light
and its projection on the base is seen to be k I, the diagonal of the
base, a T-square line. Hence, for the cylinder of Fig. 50, apply
tangent to the base and also to the top a line parallel to the
projection of the ray of light on these planes, that is, a T-square
line, and this will mark the beginning and ending of the shade line.
In Fig. 49 the projection of the ray of light diagonal m I on
the right-hand face is e I, a 30°
line; hence, in Fig. 51, where the
base is similarly placed, apply
the 30° triangle tangent as indi-
cated, determining the shade line
of the base. If the ellipse on
the left-hand face of the cube were
the base of a cone or cylinder
extending backward to the right,
the same principle would be used.

The projection of the cube diagonal m I on that face is m n, a
60° line; hence the 60° triangle would be used tangent to the base
in this last supposed case, giving the ends of the shade line at
points o and r. Figs. 52, 53 and 54 illustrate the same idea with
respect to prisms, the direction of the projection of the ray of light
on the plane of the base being used in each case to determine the
light and dark faces and hence the shade lines.

Fig. 52.

133

MECHANICAL DRAWING

In Fig. 52 a prism is represented standing on its base, so that

the projection of the cube diagonal on the base (that is, a T-square

line) is used to determine the light and dark faces as shown.

The prism in Fig. 53 has for
its base a trapezium. The
projection of the ray of light
on this end is parallel to the
diagonal of the face; hence
the 60° triangle applied par-
allel to this diagonal shows
that faces a c d b and a g h b
are light, while c e f d and
g e f h are dark, hence the
shade lines as shown.

The application in Fig.
54 is the same, the only

difference being in the position of the prism, and the consequent

difference in the direction of the diagonal.

Fig. 55 represents a block with smaller blocks projecting from

three faces.

Fig. 56 shows a framework of three pieces, two at right angles

and a slanting brace. The horizontal piece is mortised into the

upright, as indicated by the

dotted lines. In Fig. 57

the isometric outline of a

house is represented, show-
ing a dormer window and

a partial hip roof; a b is a

hip rafter, cda valley. Let

the pitch of the main roof

be shown at B, and let m be

the middle point of the top

of the end wall of the

house. Then, by measuring

vertically up a distance m I

equal to the vertical height

Fig. 54.

a n shown at B, a point on the line of the ridge will be found at I.
Line li is equal to b h, and i Ji is then drawn. Let the pitch of

134

MECHANICAL DRAWING

the end roof be given at A. This shows that the peak of the roof,
or the end a of the ridge, will be back from the end wall a distance
equal to the base of the triangle at A. Hence lay off from I this
distance, giving point «, and join a with J and x.

Fig. 57.

The height k e of the ridge of the dormer roof is known, and
we must find where this ridge will meet the main roof. The ridge
must be a 30° line as it runs parallel to the end wall of the house

135

MECHANICAL DRAWING

and to the ground. Draw from e a, line parallel to ~b h to meet a
vertical through h at/. This point is in the vertical plane of the
end wall of the house, hence in, the plane of i h. If now a 30° line
be drawn from/ parallel to x 5, it will meet the roof of the house
at g. The dormer ridge and/'*/ are in the same horizontal plane,
hence will meet the roof at the same distance below the ridge a, i.
Therefore draw the 30° line g c, and connect c with d.

In Fig. 58 a box is shown with the cover opened through 150°.

Fig. 58.

The right-hand edge of the bottom shows the width, the left-hand
edge the length, and the vertical edge the height. The short edges
of the cover are not isometric lines, hence are not shown in their
true lengths; neither is the angle through which the cover is opened
represented in its actual size.

The corners of the cover must then be determined by co-
ordinates from an end view of the box and cover. As the end of
the cover is in the same plane as the end of the box, the simple

136

MECHANICAL DRAWING

end view as shown in Fig. 59 will be sufficient. Extend the top of
the box to the right, and from c and d let fall perpendiculars or
a 1) produced, giving the points e and f. The point c may be
located by means of the two distances or co-ordinates I e and e c

Fig. 59.

and these distances will appear in their true lengths in the
isometric view. Hence produce a ' 5 ' to e ' and/"' ; and from these
points draw verticals e' c' and/*' d' ; make 5' e' equal to 5 e, e' c'
equal to e c\ and similarly for d' ' . Draw the lower edge parallel
to c' d' and equal to it in length, and
connect with J'.

It will be seen that in isometric draw-
ing parallel lines always appear parallel.
It is also true .that lines divided propor-
tionally maintain this same relation in
isometric drawing.

Fig. 60 shows a block or prism with a
semicircular top. Find the isometric of
the square circumscribing the circle, then
draw the curve by the approximate method.
The centers for the back face are found
by projecting the front centers back 30°
equal to the thickness of the prism, as
shown at a and 5. The plan and elevation of an oblique pentagonal
pyramid are shown in Fig. 61. It is evident that none of the
edges of the pyramid can be drawn in isometric as either vertical
or 30° lines; hence, a system of co-ordinates must be used as

Fig. 60.

137

MECHANICAL DKAWING

shown in Fig. 58. This problem illustrates the most general case;
and to locate some of the points three co-ordinates must be used,
two at 30° and one vertical.

Circumscribe, about the plan of the pyramid, a rectangle which
shall have its sides respectively parallel and perpendicular to the
ground line. This rectangle is on H, and its vertical projection is
in the ground line.

The isometric of this rectangle can be drawn at once with 80°
lines, as shown in Fig. 62, o being the same point in both figures.

Fig. 62.

Fig. 61.

The horizontal projection of point 3 is found in isometric at 3h, at
the same distance from o as in the plan. That is, any distance
which in plan is parallel to a side of the circumscribing rectangle,
is shown in isometric in its true length and parallel to the corre-
sponding side of the isometric rectangle. If point 3 were on the
horizontal plane its isometric would be 3h, but the point is at the
vertical height above H given in the elevation; hence, lay off above
3b this vertical height, obtaining the actual isometric of the point.
To locate 4, draw 4 a parallel to the side of the rectangle; then lay

138

MECHANICAL DRAWING

off o a and a 4h, giving what may be called the isometric plan of 4
Next, the vertical height taken from the elevation locates the iso-
metric of the point in space.
In like manner all the
corners of the pyramid, in.
eluding the apex, are located.
The rule is, locate first in
isometric the horizontal pro-
jection of a point ly one or
two 30° co-ordinates; then
vertically, above this point,
its height as taken from
the elevation. The shade
lines cannot be determined
here by applying the 30° or
60° triangle, owing to the
obliquity of the faces. Since
the right front corner of the
rectangle in plan was made the point o in isometric, the shade
lines must be the same in isometric as in actual projection ; so that,

if these can be de-
termined in Fig. 61,
they may be applied
at once to Fig, 62.
The shade lines
in Fig. 61 are found
by a short method
which is convenient
to use when the exact
shade lines are de-
sired, and when they
cannot be deter-
mined by applying
the 45° triangle. A
plane is taken at 45°
with the horizontal
plane, and parallel to the direction of the ray of light, in such a
position as to cut all the surfaces of the pyramid, as shown in

139

MECHANICAL DEAWING

elevation. This plane is perpendicular to the vertical plane; hence
the section it cuts from the pyramid is readily found in plan by
projection. This plane contains some of the rays of light falling
upon the pyramid; and we can tell what surfaces these rays'strike

]

Fig. 65.

Fig. 67.

Fig. 68.

and make light, by noticing on the plan what edges of the section are
struck by the projections of the rays of light. That is, r s, s t, and t u
receive the rays of light; hence the surfaces on which these lines lie
are light, r s is on the surface determined by the two lines passing

140

MECHANICAL DRAWING

through r and s, namely, 2 — 1 and 1 — 5; in other words, r s is
011 the base; similarly, s t is on the surface 1 — 5 — 6; and t u on
the surface 4 — 6 — 5. The other surfaces are dark; hence the edges
which are between the light and dark faces are the shade lines.

Whenever it is more convenient, a plane parallel to the ray
of light and perpendicular to H may be taken, the section found
in elevation, and the 45° triangle applied to this section. The
same method may be used to determine the exact shade lines
of a cone or cylinder in an oblique position.

Figs. 63 to 70 give examples of the isometric of various
objects. Fig. 65 is the plan and elevation, and Fig. 66 the

Fig. 69. Fig. 70.

isometric, of a carpenter's bench. In Fig. 70, take especial notice
of the shade lines. These are put on as if the group were made
in one piece; and the shadows cast by the blocks on one another
are disregarded. All upper horizontal faces are light, all left-hand
(front and back) faces light, and the rest dark.

OBLIQUE PROJECTIONS.

In oblique projection, as in isometric, the end sought for is
the same — a more or lass complete representation, in one view, of
any object. Oblique projection differs from isometric in that one
face of the object is represented as if parallel to the vertical
plane of projection, the others inclined to it. Another point of

. r

141

MECHANICAL DKAWING

difference is that oblique projection cannot be deduced frqm
orthographic projection, as is isometric.

In oblique projection all lines in the front face are shown in
their true lengths and in their true relation to one another, and
lines which are perpendicular to this front face are shown in their
true lengths at any angle that may be desired for any particular
case. Lines not in the plane of the front face nor perpendicular

Fig. 71.

Fig. 72.

to it must be determined by co-ordinates, as in isometric. It will
be seen at once that this system possesses some advantages over
the isometric, as, for instance, in the representation of circles,

Fig. 73.

Fig. 74.

as any circle or curve in the front face is actually drawn as such.
The rays of light are still supposed to be parallel to the same
diagonal of the cube, that is, sloping downward, toward the plane
of projection, and to the right, or downward, backward and to
the right. Figs. 71, 72 and 73 show a cube in oblique projection,

142

MECHANICAL DRAWING

with the 30°, 45° and 60° slant respectively. The dotted diagonal
represents for each case the direction of the light, and the shade
lines follow from this.

The shade lines have the same general position as in isometric

Fig. 75. Fig. 76.

drawing, the top, front and left-hand faces being light. No matter
what angle may be used for the edges that are perpendicular to
the front face, the projection of the diagonal of the cube on this
face is always a 45° line; hence, for determining the shade lines on

Fig. 77.

any front face, such as the end of the hollow cylinder in Fig. 74,
the 45° line is used exactly as in the elevation of ordinary
projections.

Figs. 75, 76, 77 and 79 are other examples of oblique projections.
Fig. 77 is a crank arm.

The method of using co-ordinates for lines of which the true

143

MECHANICAL DRAWING

lengths are not shown, is illustrated by Figs. 78 and 79. Fig. 79
represents the oblique projection of the two joists shown in plan
and elevation in Fig. 78. The dotted lines in the elevation (see
Fig. 78) show the heights of the corners above the horizontal
stick. The feet of these perpendiculars give the horizontal dis-
tances of the top corners from the end of the horizontal piece.

In Fig. 79 lay off from the upper right-hand corner of the
front end a distance equal to the distance between the front edge
of the inclined piece and the front edge of the bottom piece (see
Fig. 78). From this point draw a dotted line parallel to the

Fig. 79

Fig. 78.

length. The horizontal distances from the upper left corner to
the dotted perpendicular are then marked off on this line. From
these points verticals are drawn, and made equal in length to the
dotted perpendiculars of Fig. 78, thus locating two corners of the
end.

LINE SHADING.

In finely finished drawings it is frequently desirable to make
the various parts more readily seen by showing the graduations of
light and shade on the curved surfaces. This is especially true of
such surfaces as cylinders, cones and spheres. The effect is
obtained by drawing a series of parallel or converging lines on
the surface at varying distances from one another. Sometimes
draftsmen vary the width of the lines themselves. These lines are
farther apart on the lighter portion of the surface, and are closer
together and heavier on the darker part.

144

MECHANICAL DRAWING

Fig. 80 shows a cylinder with elements drawn on the surface
equally spaced, as on the plan. On account of the curvature of
the surface the elements are not equally spaced on the elevation,
but give the effect of graduation of light. The
result is that in elevation the distances between
the elements gradually lessen from the center
toward each side, thus showing that the cylinder
is convex. The effect is intensified, however, if
the elements are made heavier, as well as closer
together, as shown in Figs. 81 to 87.

Cylinders are often shaded with the light
coming in the usual way, the darkest part com-
mencing about where the shade line would actually
be on the surface, and the lightest portion a little
to the left of the center. Fig. 81 is a cylinder
showing the heaviest shade at the right, as this
method is often used. Considerable practice is
necessary in order to obtain good results; but in
this, as in other portions of mechanical drawing,

Fig. 80.

perseverance has its reward. Fig. 82 represents a cylinder in a
horizontal position, and Fig. 83 represents a section of a hollow
vertical cylinder.

Fig. 81.

Fig. 82.

Fig. 83.

Figs. 84 to 87 give other examples of familiar objects.

In the elevation of the cone shown in Fig. 87 the shade lines
should diminish in weight as they approach the apex. Unless
this is done it will be difficult to avoid the formation of a blot at
that point.

145

MECHANICAL DRAWING

LETTERING.

All working drawings require more or less lettering, such as
titles, dimensions, explanations, etc. In order that the drawing
may appear finished, the lettering must be well done. No style
of lettering should ever be used which is not perfectly legible.
It is' generally best to use plain, easily-made letters which present

Pig. 84.

Fig. 85.

Pig. 86.

Pig. 87.

a neat appearance. Small letters used on the drawing for notes or
directions should be made free-hand with an ordinary writing pen.
Two horizontal guide lines should be used to limit the height of
the letters; after a time, however, the upper guide line may be
omitted.

146

MECHANICAL DRAWING 55

In the early part of this course the inclined Gothic letter was
described, and the alphabet given. The Roman, Gothic and block
letters are perhaps the most used for titles. These letters, being
of comparatively large size, are generally made mechanically; that
is, drawing instruments are used in their construction. In order
that the letters may appear of the same height, some of them,
owing to their shape, must be made a little higher than the others.
This is the case with the letters curved at the top and bottom,
such as C, O, S, etc., as shown somewhat exaggerated in
Fig. 88. Also, the letter A should extend a little above, and V a
little below, the guide lines, because if made of the same height
as the others they will appear shorter. This is true of all capitals,
whether of Roman, Gothic, or other alphabets. In the block letter,
however, they are frequently all of the same size.

There is no absolute size or proportion of letters, as the
dimensions are regulated by the amount of space in which the
letters are to be placed, the size of the drawing, the effect desired,
etc. In some cases letters are made so that the height is greater
than the width, and sometimes the reverse; sometimes the height
and width are the same. This last proportion is the most common.
Certain relations of width, however, should be observed. Thus, in
whatever style of alphabet used, the W should be the widest letter;
J the narrowest, M and T next widest to W, then A and B. The
other letters are of about the same width.

In the vertical Gothic alphabet, the average height is that of
B, D, E, F, etc., and the additional height of the curved letters
and of the A and V is very slight. The horizontal cross lines of
such letters as E, F, H, etc., are slightly above the center; those
of A, G and P slightly below.

For the inclined letters, 60° is a convenient angle, although
they may be at any other angle suited to the convenience or fancy
of the draftsman. Many draftsmen use an angle of about 70°.

The letters of the Roman alphabet, whether vertical or
inclined, are quite ornamental in effect if well made, the inclined
Roman being a particularly attractive letter, although rather
difficult to make. The block" letter is made on the same general
plan as the Gothic, but much heavier. Small squares are taken as

147

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

I
:i — I

!k| f'op

H r\l

i !i

. J W

H s b

!• 4 !• >— T!

n H i

H H '>" :

lULJi ire {rj

1,1 LJ P

Hi iQji if

I IP"^^^I .1

I, I" (*

U!'

,: :, idJ!

"*+S\.* iF1 ' ii 1

CD rj H

i; M ir^i

(f)

148

MECHANICAL DRAWING 57

the unit of measurement, as shown. The use of this letter is not
advocated for general work, although if made merely in'outline the
effect is pleasing. The styles of numbers corresponding with
the alphabets of capitals given here, are also inserted. When a
fraction, such as 2| is to be made, the proportion should be about
as shown. For small letters, usually called lower-case letters,

abcdefghijklmn
opqrstuvwxyz

Fig. 89.

ctbcdefgh/jk/mn
opcfrs tu

Fig. 90.

abcdefghijklmn
op qr s tuvwxy z

Fig. 91.

the height may be made about two-thirds that of the capitals.
This proportion, however, varies in special cases.

The principal lower-case letters in general use among drafts-
men are shown in Figs. 89, 90, 91 and 92. The Gothic letters
shown in Figs. 89 and 90 are much easier to make than the
Roman letters in Figs. 91 and 92. These letters, however, do not

149

MECHANICAL DRAWING.

1OICO

CO
CM

150

MECHANICAL DRAWING 59

give as finished an appearance as the Roman. As has already
been stated in Mechanical Drawing, Part I, the inclined letter is
easier to make because slight errors are not so apparent.

One of the most important points to be remembered in letter-
ing is the spacing. If the letters are finely executed but poorly
spaced, the effect is not good. To space letters correctly and
rapidly, requires considerable experience; and rules are of little
value on account of the many combinations in which letters are

CL b c defg h ij'ktmn
opqrstuvwxyz

Fig. 92.

found. A few directions, however, may be found helpful. For
instance, take the word TECHNICALITY, Fig. 93. If all the
spaces were made equal, the space between the L and the I would
appear to be too great, and the same would apply to the space
between the I and the T. The space between the H and the N
and that between the N and the I would be insufficient. In
general, when the vertical side of one letter is followed by the verti-
cal side of another, as in H E, H B, I R, etc., the maximum spa.ce

TECHNICALITY

Pig. 93.

should be allowed. Where T and A come together the least space
is given, for in this case the top of the T frequently extends over
the bottom of the A. In general, the spacing should be such that
a uniform appearance is obtained. For the distances between
words in a sentence, a space of about \\ the width of the average
letter may be used. The space, however, depends largely upon the
desired effect.

151

MECHANICAL DRAWING

For large titles, such as those placed on charts, maps, and
some large working drawings, the letters should be penciled before
inking. If the height is made equal to the width considerable
time and labor will be saved in laying out the work. This is
especially true with such Gothic letters as O, Q, C, etc., as these
letters may then be made with compasses. If the letters are of
sufficient size, the outlines may be drawn with the ruling pen or
compasses, and the spaces between filled in with a fine brush.

The titles for working drawings are generally placed in the
lower right-hand corner. Usually a draftsman has his choice of

Block Letters.

letters, mainly because after he has become used to making one
style he can do it rapidly and accurately. However, in some draft-
ing rooms the head draftsman decides what lettering shall be used.
In making these titles, the different alphabets are selected to give
the best results without spending too much time. In most work
the letters are made in straight lines, although we frequently find
a portion of the title lettered on an arc of a circle.

In Fig. 94 is shown a title having the words CONNECTING
ROD lettered on an arc of a circle. To do this work requires
considerable patience and practice. First draw the vertical center

152

MECHANICAL DRAWING 61

line as shown at C in Fig. 94. Then draw horizontal lines for the
horizontal letters. The radii of the arcs depend upon the general
arrangement of the entire title, and this is a matter of taste. The
difference between the arcs should equal the height of the letters.
After the arc is drawn, the letters should be sketched in pencil to
find their approximate positions. After this is done, draw radial
lines from the center of the letters to the center of the arcs.

BEAM ENGINE

SCALE 3 INCHES = 1 FOOT

PORTLAND COMPANY'S WORKS

JULY 1O, 1894

Pig. 94.

These lines will be the centers of the letters, as shown at A, B, D
and E. The vertical lines of the letters should not radiate from
the center of the arc, but should be parallel to the center lines
already drawn; otherwise the letters will appear distorted. Thus,
in the letter N the two verticals are parallel to the line A. The
same applies to the other letters in the alphabet.

153

62 MECHANICAL DRAWING

Tracing. Having finished the pencil drawing, the next ?tep
is the inking. In some offices the pencil drawing is made on a thin,
tough paper, called board paper, and the inking is done over the
pencil drawing, in the manner with which the student is already
familiar. It is more common to do the inking on thin, trans-
parent cloth, called tracing cloth, which is prepared for the pur-
pose. This tracing cloth is made of various kinds, the kind in
ordinary use being what is known as " dull back," that is, one
side is finished and the other side is left dull. Either side may
be used to draw upon, but most draftsmen prefer the dull side.
If a drawing is to be traced it is a good plan to use a 311 or 4H
pencil, so that the lines may be easily seen through the cloth.

The tracing cloth is stretched smoothly over the pencil draw-
ing and a little powdered chalk rubbed over it with a dry cloth,
to remove the slight amount of grease or oil from the surface and
make it take the ink better. The dust must be carefully brushed
or wiped off with a soft cloth^ after the rubbing, or it will inter-
fere with the inking.

The drawing is then made in ink on the tracing cloth, after
the same general rules as for inking the paper, but care must be
taken to draw the ink lines exactly over the pencil lines which
are on the paper underneath, and which should be just heavy
enough to be easily seen through the tracing cloth. The ink lines
should be firm and fully as heavy as for ordinary work. In tracing,
it is better to complete one view at a time, because if parts of
several views are traced and the drawing left for a day or two, the
cloth is liable to stretch and warp so that it will be difficult to
complete the views and make the new lines fit those already
drawn and at the same time conform to the pencil lines under-
neath. For this reason it is well, when possible, to complete a
view before leaving the drawing for any length of time, although
of course on viewi in which there is a good deal of work this
cannot always be done. In this case the draftsman must manipu-
late his tracing cloth and instruments to make the lines fit as best
he can. A skillful draftsman will have no trouble from this
source, but the beginner may at first find difficulty.

Inking on tracing cloth will be found by the beginner to be
quite different from inking on the paper to which he has been
accustomed, and he will doubtless make many blots and think at

154

LL
LU

3
f-

on a.
<0

_i X J

MECHANICAL DRAWING 63

first that it is hard to make a tracing. After a little practice,
nowever, he will find that the tracing cloth is very satisfactory
and that a good drawing can be made on it quite as easily as on
paper.

The necessity for making erasures should be avoided, as far
as possible, but when an erasure must be made a good ink rubber
or typewriter eraser may be used. If the erased line is to have
ink placed on it, such as a line crossing, it is better to use a soft
rubber eraser. All moisture should be kept from the cloth.

Blue Printing, The tracing, of course, cannot be sent into
the shop for the workmen to use, as it would soon become soiled
and in time destroyed, so that it is necessary to have some cheap
and rapid means of making copies from it. These copies are
made by the process of blue printing in which the tracing is used
in a manner similar to the use made of a negative in photography.

Almost all drafting rooms have a frame for the purpose of
making blue prints. These frames are made in many styles, some
simple, some elaborate. A simple and efficient form is a flat sur-
face usually of wood, covered with padding of soft material, such
as felting. To this is hinged the cover, which consists of a frame
similar to a picture frame, in which is set a piece of clear glass.
The whole is either mounted on a track or on some sort of a
swinging arm, so that it may readily be run in and out of a
window.

The print is made on paper prepared for the purpose by
having one of its surfaces coated with chemicals which are sensi-
tive to sunlight. This coated paper, or blue-print paper, as it is
called, is laid on the padded surface of the frame with its coated
side uppermost; the tracing laid over it right side up, and the
glass pressed down firmly and fastened in place. Springs are
frequently used to keep the paper, tracing, etc., against the glasSc
With some frames it is more convenient to turn them over and
remove the backs. In such cases the tracing is laid against the
glass, face down; the coated paper is then placed on it with the
coated side against the tracing cloth.

The sun is allowed to shine upon the drawing for a few
minutes, then the blue-print paper is taken out and thoroughly
washed in clean water for several minutes and hung up to dry.

157

64 MECHANICAL DRAWING

If the paper has been recently prepared and the exposure properly
timed, the coated surface of the paper will now be of a clear, deep
blue color, except where it was covered by the ink lines, where it
will be perfectly white.

The action has been this: Before the paper was exposed to
the light the coating was of a pale yellow color, and if it had then
been put in water the coating would have all washed off, leaving
the paper white. In other words, before being exposed to the
sunlight the coating was soluble. The light penetrated the trans-
parent tracing cloth and acted upon the chemicals of the coating,
changing their nature so that they became insoluble; that is, when
put in water, the coating, instead of being washed off, merely
turned blue. The light could not penetrate the ink with which
the lines, figures, etc., were drawn, consequently the coating under
these was not acted upon and it washed off when put in water,
leaving a white copy of the ink drawing on a blue background.
If running water cannot be used, the paper must be washed in a
sufficient number of changes until the water is clear. It is a good
plan to arrange a tank having an overflow, so that the water may
remain at a depth of about 6 or 8 inches.

The length of time to which a print should be exposed to the
light depends upon the quality and freshness of the paper, the
chemicals used and the brightness of the light. Some paper is
prepared so that an exposure of one minute, or even less, in bright
sunlight, will give a good print and the time ranges from this to
twenty minutes or more, according to the proportions of the
various chemicals in the coating. If the full strength of the sun-
light does not strike the paper, as, for instance, if clouds partly
cover the sun, the time of exposure must be lengthened.

Assembly Drawing. We have followed through the process
of making a detail drawing from the sketches to the blue print
ready for the workmen. Such a detail drawing or set of drawings
shows the form and size of each piece, but does not show how the
pieces go together and gives no idea of the machine as a whole.
Consequently, a general, drawing or assembly drawing must be
made, which will show these things. Usually two or more views
are necessary, the number depending upon the complexity of the
machine. Very often a cross-section through some part of the

158

MECHANICAL DRAWING G5

machine, chosen so as to give the best general idea with the least
amount of work, will make the drawing clearer.

The number of dimensions required on an assembly drawing
depends largely upon the kind of machine. It is usually best to
give the important over-all dimensions and the distance between
the principal center lines. Care must be taken that the over-all
dimensions agree with the sum of the dimensions of the various
details.' For example, suppose three pieces are bolted together,
the thickness of the pieces according to the detail drawing, being
one inch, two inches, and five and one-half inches respectively; the
sum of these three dimensions is eight and one-half inches and
the dimensions from outside on the assembly drawing, if given at
all, must agree with this. It is a good plan to add these over-all
dimensions, as it serves as a check and relieves the mechanic of the
necessity of adding fractions.

FORMULA FOR BLUE-PRINT SOLUTION.

Dissolve thoroughly and filter.

Red Prussiate of potash « 2^ ounces,

1 Water 1 pint.

Ammonio-Citrate of iron 4 ounces,

B- Water 1 pint,

Use equal parts of A and B.

FORHULA FOR BLACK PRINTS

Negatives. White lines on blue ground; prepare the paper

with

Ammonio-Citrate of iron 40 grains,

Water 1 ounce.

After printing wash in water.

Positives. Black lines on white ground; prepare the paper

with:

Iron perchloride 616 grains,

Oxalic Acid 308 grains,

Water 14 ounces.

( Gallic Acid..., 1 ounce,

Develop in 1 Citric Acid 1 ounce,

( Alum 8 ouncea

Use 1J ounces of developer to one gallon of water. Paper is
fully exposed when it has changed from yellow to white.

159

66 MECHANICAL DKAWING

PLATES.

PLATE IX.

The plates of this Instruction Paper should be laid out at the
same size as the plates in Parts I and II. The center lines and
border lines should also be drawn as described.

First draw two ground lines across the sheet, 3 inches below
the upper border line and 3 inches above the lower border line.
The first problem on each ground line is to be placed 1 inch from
the left border line; and spaces of about 1 inch should be left
between the figures.

Isolated points are indicated by a small cross X, and projections
of lines are to be drawn full unless invisible. All construction
lines should be fine dotted lines. Given and required lines should
be drawn full.

Problems on Upper Ground Line:

1. Locate both projections of a point on the horizontal plane
1 inch from the vertical plane.

2. Draw the projections of a line 2 inches long which is
parallel to the vertical plane and which makes an angle of 45
degrees with the horizontal plane and slants upward to the right.

The line should be 1 inch from the vertical plane and the lower end
J^j inch above the horizontal.

3 Draw the projections of a line 1| inches long which is
parallel to both planes, 1 inch above the horizontal, and f inch from
the vertical.

4. Draw the plan ana elevation of a line 2 incnes long which
is parallel to H and makes an angle of 30 degrees with V. Let the
right-hand end of the line be the end nearer V, § inch from V.
The line to be 1 inch above H.

5. Draw the plan and elevation of a line 1| inches long
which is perpendicular to the horizontal plane and 1 inch from the
vertical. Lower end of line is ^ inch above H.

6. Draw the projections of a line 1 inch long which is
perpendicular to the vertical plane and 1^ inches above the
horizontal. The end of the lino nearer V, or the back end, is
^ inch from V.

160

MECHANICAL DRAWING

7. Draw two projections which shall represent a line oblique
to both planes.

NOTE. Leave 1 inch between this figure and the right-hand border line,
Problems on Lower Ground Line :

8. Draw the projections of two parallel lines each 1^ inches
long. The lines are to be parallel to the vertical plane and to make
angles of 60 degrees with the horizontal. The lower end of each
line is £ inch above H. The right-hand end of the right-hand line
is to be 2£ inches from the left-hand margin.

9. Draw the projections of two parallel lines each 2 inches
long. Both lines to be parallel to the horizontal and to make
an • angle of 30 degrees with the vertical. The lower line to be
f inch above H, and one end of one line to be against V.

10. Draw the projections of two intersecting lines. One
2 inches long to be parallel to both planes,! inch above H, and
£ inch from the vertical; and the other to be oblique to both
planes and of any desired length.

11. Draw plan and elevation of a prism 1 inch square and 1^
inches long. The prism to have one side on the horizontal plane,
and its long edges to be perpendicular to V. The back end of the
prism is \ inch from the vertical plane.

12. Draw plan and elevation of a prism the same size as given
above, but with the long edges parallel to both planes, the lower
face of the prism to be parallel to H and \ inch above it, The
back face to be \ inch from V.

PLATE X.

The ground line is to be in the middle of the sheet, and the
location and dimensions of the figures are to be as given. The
first figure shows a rectangular block with a rectangular hole cut
through from front to back. The other two figures represent the
same block in different positions. The second figure is the end or
profile projection of the block. The same face is on H in all
three positions. Be careful not to omit the shade lines. The
figures given on the plate for dimensions, etc., are to be used but
not repeated on the plate by the student.

163

MECHANICAL DRAWING

PLATE XL

Three ground lines are to be used on this plate, two at the left
4ij inches long and 3 inches from top and bottom margin lines ; and
one at the right, half way between the top and bottom margins, 9|
inches long.

The figures 1, 2, 3 and 4 are examples for finding the true
i3ngths of the lines. Begin No. 1 finch from the border, the
vertical projection If inches long, one end on the ground line and
inclined at 30°. The horizontal projection has one end ^ incl
from V, and the other 1| inches from V. Find the true length of
the line by completing the construction commenced by swinging
the arc, as shown in the figure.

Locate the left-hand end of No. 2 3 inches from the border,
1 inch above H, and f inch from V. Extend the vertical projection
to the ground line at an angle of 45°, and make the horizontal pro-
jection at 30°. Complete the construction for true length as
commenced in the figure.

In Figs. 3 and 4, the true lengths are to be found by complet-
ing the revolutions indicated. The left-hand end of Fig. 3 is f
inch from the margin, 1| inches from V, and If inches above H.
The horizontal projection makes an angle of 60° and extends to the
ground line, and the vertical projection is inclined at 45°.

The fourth figure is 3 inches from the border, and represents
a line in a profile plane connecting points a and J. a is 1| inches
above H and f inch from V; and 5 is \ inch above H and 1|
inches from V.

The figures for the middle ground line represent a pentagonal
pyramid in three positions. The first position is the pyramid with
the axis vertical, and the base f inch above the horizontal. The
height of the pyramid is 2| inches, and the diameter of the circle
circumscribed about the base is 2| inches. The center of the circle
is 6 inches from the left margin and If inches from V. Spaces
between figures to be f inch.

In the second figure the pyramid has been revolved about the
right-hand corner of the base as an axis, through an angle of 15°.
The axis of the pyramid, shown dotted, is therefore at 75°. The
method of obtaining 75° and 15° with the triangles was shown in

164

MECHANICAL DKAWING

Part I. From the way in which the pyramid has been revolved,
all angles with V must remain the same as in the first position;
hence the vertical projection will be the same shape and size as
before. All points of the pyramid remain the same distance
from V. The points on the plan are found on T-square lines
through the corners of the first plan and directly beneath the
points in elevation. In the third position the pyramid has been
swung around, about a vertical line through the apex as axis,
through 30°. The angle with the horizontal plane remains the
same; consequently the plan is. the same size and shape as in the

Fig. 96.

second position, but at a different angle with the ground line.
Heights of all points of the pyramid have not changed this time,
and hence are projected across from the second elevation. Shade
lines are to be put on between the light and dark surfaces as
determined by the 45° triangle.

PLATE XII.

Developments.

On this plate draw the developments of a truncated octagonal
prism, and of a truncated pyramid having a square base. The
arrangement on the plate is left to the student; but we should
suggest that the truncated prism and its development be placed at

167

MECHANICAL DBA WING

the left, and that the development of the truncated pyramid be
placed under the development of the prism ; the truncated pyramid
may be placed at the right.

The prism and its development are shown in Fig. 96. The
prism is 3 inches high, and the base is inscribed in a circle 2^
inches in diameter. The plane forming the truncated prism is
passed as indicated, the distance A B being 1 inch. Ink a suffi-
cient number of construction lines to show clearly the method of
finding the development.

The pyramid and its development are shown in Fig. 97. Each
side of the square base is 2 inches, and the altitude is 3| inches.
A

Fig. 97.

The plane forming the truncated pyramid is passed in such a
position that A B equals If inches, and A C equals 2^ inches. In
this figure the development may be drawn in any convenient
position, but in the case of the prism it is better to draw the
development as shown. Indicate clearly the construction by
inking the construction lines.

PLATE XIII.

Isometric and Oblique Projection.

Draw the oblique projection of a portable closet. The angle to
be used is 45°. Make the height 3^ inches, the depth 1| inches,
and the width 3 inches. See Fig. 98. The width of the closet

168

MECHANICAL DBAWING

is to be shown as the left-hand face. The front left-hand lower
corner is to be 1 inch from the left-hand border line and 2 inches
from the lower border line. The door to be placed in the closet
should be If inches wide and 2f inches high. Place the door

*'"•

3H-

Fig. 98.

centrally in the front of the closet, the bottom edge at the height
of the floor of the closet, the hinges of the door to be placed on the
left-hand side. In the oblique drawing, show the door opened
at an angle of 90 degrees. The thickness of the material of the
closet, door, and floor is £ inch.
The door should be hung so that
when closed it will be flush with
the front of the closet.

Make the isometric drawing
of the flight of steps and end walls
as shown by the end view in Fig.
99. The lower right-hand corner
is to be located 2^ inches from
the lower, and 5 inches from the

Fig. 99.

right-hand, margin. The base of the end wall is 3£ inches long,
and the height is 2^ inches. Beginning from the back of the
wall, the top is horizontal for f inch, the remainder of the outline
being composed of arcs of circles whose radii and centers are given

171

72 MECHANICAL DKAWING-

in the figure. The thickness of the end wall is f inch, and both
ends are alike. There are to be five steps; each rise is to be
| inch, and each tread | inch, except that of the top step, which
is | inch. The first step is located | inch back from the corner
of the wall. The end view of the wall should be constructed on a
separate sheet of paper, from the dimensions given, the points on
the curve being located by horizontal co-ordinates from the vertical
edge of the wall, and then these co-ordinates transferred to the
isometric drawing. After the isometric of one curved edge has
been made, the others can be readily found from this. The width
of the steps inside the walls is 3 inches.

PLATE XIV.

Free-hand Lettering.

On account of the importance of free-hand lettering, the
student should practice it at every opportunity. For additional
practice, and to show the improvement made since completing
Part I, lay out Plate XIV in the same manner as Plate I, and letter
all four rectangles. Use the same letters and words as in the lower
light-hand rectangle of Plate I.

PLATE XV.
Lettering.

First lay out Plate XV in the same manner as previous
plates. After drawing the vertical center line, draw light pencil
lines as guide lines for the letters. The height of each line of
letters is shown on the reproduced plate. The distance be-
tween the letters should be | inch in every case. The spacing
of the letters is left to the student. He may facilitate his work
by lettering the words on a separate piece of paper, and finding
the center by measurement or by doubling the paper into two
equal parts. The styles of letters shown on the reproduced plate
should be used

172

f-.t-^fi r?i r-fi" r-*i #1 r.-H hH r..fv.-

J
O

D
O
O

<^f

H
O

cC S
o

A CKNOWLEDGMENT SHOULD BE MADE TO
•*"*• THE SEVERAL ARCHITECTS, DESIGNERS
AND PUBLISHERS WHO HAVE ALLOWED
THEIR DRAWINGS TO BE REPRODUCED IN
THE SECTION ON ARCHITECTURAL LETTER-
ING, AND TO THE BATES & GUILD CO., OF
BOSTON, FOR PERMISSION TO INCLUDE THE
VARIOUS PLATES FROM "LETTERS AND LET-
TERING," A LARGER TREATISE BY FRANK
CHOUTEAU BROWN.

riere

erlio

RUBBING OF INCISED SLATE LETTERING FROM HEAD STONE IN KING'S CHAPEL BURYING
GROUND, BOSTON, 1773.

ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING.

Architectural lettering maj be divided into two general
classes. The first is for titling and naming drawings, as well as
for such notes and explanations as it is usual or necessary to put
upon them; this may well be called "Office Lettering." The
second includes the use of letters for architectural inscriptions
to be carved in wood or stone, or cast in metal : for this quite a
different character of letter is required, and one that is always
to be considered in its relation to the material in which it is to
be executed, and designed in regard to its adaptability to its
method of execution. This may be arbitrarily termed "Inscrip-
tion Lettering," and as a more subtle and less exact subject than
office lettering it may better be taken up last.

OFFICE LETTERING.

Architectural office lettering has nothing in common with
the usual Engineering letter, or rather, to be more exact, the re-
verse is true : Engineering lettering has nothing in common with
anything else. Its terminology is wrong and needlessly confusing
inasmuch as it clashes with well and widely accepted definitions.
Therefore it will be necessary to start entirely anew, and if the
student has already studied any engineering book on the subject,
to warn him that in this instruction paper such terms as Gothic,
etc., will be used in their well-understood Architectural meaning
and must not be misinterpreted to include the style of letter
arbitrarily so called by Engineers.

The first purpose of the lettering on an architectural plan or
elevation is to identify the sheet with its name and general
descriptive title, and further, to give the names of the owner
and architect. The lettering for this purpose should always be
rather important and large in size, and its location, weight and

177

ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING

height must be exactly determined by the size, shape and weight
of the plan or elevation itself, as well as its location upon and
relation to the paper on which it is drawn, in order to give a
pleasing effect and to best finish or set off the drawing itself.
The style of letter used may be suggested, or even demanded, by
the design of the building represented. Thus Gothic lettering
might be appropriate on a drawing of a Gothic church, just as
Italian Renaissance lettering would be for a building of that
style, or as Classic lettering would seem most suitable on the
drawings for a purely Classic design ; while each letter or legend
would look equally out of place on any one of the other drawings.

LETTER FORHS.

It may be said that practically all the lettering now used
in architectural offices in this country is derived, however re-
motely it may seem in some cases, from the old Roman capitals
as developed and defined during the period of the Italian Renais-
sance. These Renaissance forms may be best studied first at a
large size in order to appreciate properly the beauty and the
subtlety of their individual proportions. For this purpose it is
well to draw out at rather a large scale, about four or four and
one-half inches in height, a set of these letters of some recognized
standard form, and in order to insure an approximately correct
result some such method of construction as that shown in Figs.
1 and 2 should be followed. This alphabet, a product of the
Renaissance, though of German origin, is one adapted from the
well-known letters devised by Albrecht Diirer about 1525, and is
here merely redrawn to a simpler constructive method and ar-
ranged in a more condensed fashion. This may be accepted as a
good general form of Roman capital letter in outline, although
it lacks a little of the Italian delicacy of feeling and thus be-
trays its German origin.

The letter is here shown in a complete alphabet, including
those letters usually omitted from the Classic or Italian inscrip-
tions: the J, TJ (the V in its modern form) and two alternative
W's, which are separately drawn out in Fig. 1.

These three do not properly form part of the Classic alpha-
bet and have come into use only within comparatively modern

178

AKCHITECTUEAL LETTERING

times. For this reason in any strictly Classic inscription the
letter I should be used in place of the J, and the V in place
of the U. It is sometimes necessary to use the W in our modern
spelling, when the one composed of the double V should always
be employed.

The system of construction shown in this alphabet is not
exactly the one that Diirer himself devised. The main forms
of the letters as well as their proportions are very closely copied
from the original alphabet, but the construction has been some-
what simplified and some few minor changes made in the letters
themselves, tending more towards a modern and more uniform
character. The two W's, one showing the construction with the
use of the two overlapping letter V's, and one showing the W
incorporated upon the same square unit which carries the other

Fig. 1. Two Alternative Forms of the Letter W,
to accompany the Alphabet shown in Fig. 2.

letters (the latter form. being the one used by Diirer himself),
are shown separately in Fig. 1. It should be noticed that every
letter in the alphabet, except one or two that of necessity lack
the requisite width — such as the I and J — is based upon and
fills up the outline of a square, or in the case of the round letters,
a circle which is itself contained within the square. This alpha-
bet should be compared with the alphabet in Fig. 4, attributed
to Sebastian Serlio, an Italian architect of the sixteenth century.
By means of this comparison a very good idea may "be obtained
of the differences and characteristics which distinguish the Italian
and German traits in practically contemporaneous lettering.

. After once drawing out these letters at a large size, the be-
ginner may find that he has unconsciously acquired a better con-
structive feeling for the general proportions of the individual let-

179

AKCHITECTUKAL LETTERING

ters and should thereafter form the letters free-hand without the
aid of any such scheme of construction, merely referring occa-
sionally to the large chart as a sort of guide or check upon the

Fig. 2. Alphabet of Classic Renaissance Letters according to Albrecht
Diirer, adapted and reconstructed by F. C. Brown. (See Fig. 1.)

eye. For this purpose it should be placed conveniently, so that it
may be referred to when in doubt as to the outline of any in-
dividual letter. By following this course and practicing thor-

180

ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING

oughly the use of the letters in word combinations, a ready com-
mand over this important style of letter will eventually be
acquired.

Fig. 2. (Continued)

In practice it will soon be discovered that a letter in outline
and of a small size is more difficult to draw than one solidly
blacked-in, because the denning outline must be even upon both

181

ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING

its edges ,' and that as the eye follows more the inner side of this
line than it does the outer, both in drawing and afterwards in
recognizing the letter form, the inaccuracies of the outer side of
the line are likely to show up against the neighboring letters, and
produce an irregularity of effect that it is difficult to overcome,
especially for the beginner ; while in a solidly blacked-in letter,
it is the outline and proportions alone with which the draftsman
must concern himself. Therefore, a letter in the same style is
more easily and rapidly drawn when solidly blacked-in than as
an "open" or outline letter. In many cases where it is desired
to give a more or less formal and still sketchy effect, a letter of
the same construction but with certain differences in its charac-
teristics may be used. It should not be so difficult to draw, and
much of the same character may still be retained in a form that

TAVNTON'PVBLIC- LIBRA RY
TAVNTON-MAS.SAC HV.SETT.S

/•LBtKT RANDOLPH BO.S.S ARCHTrECT ONt HUMFE.D /NO FIFTY SK FIFTH A/EMUd NEWYORK. CITY

Fig. 3. Title from Competitive Drawings for the Taunton Public Library,
Albert Randolph Ross, Architect.

is much easier to execute. Some such letter as is shown at the
top of Fig. 10, or any other personal variation of a similar form
such as may be better adapted to the pen of the individual drafts-
man would answer this purpose. The titles shown in Figs. 3 and
5 include letters of this same general type, but of essentially
different character.

In drawing a letter that is to be incised in stone it is cus-
tomary to show in addition to the outline, "a third line about in
the center of the space between the outside lines. This addi-
tional line represents the internal angle that occurs at the meeting
of the two sloping faces used to define the letter. An example is
shown in Figs. 24 and 25, while in Fig. 7^ taken from drawings
for a building by McKim, Mead & White, the same convention
is frankly employed to emphasize the principal lettering of a
pen-drawn title.

183

ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING

ABCD
EFGH
I KLM

NOQP
RSTV
WXYZ

Fig. 4. Italian Renaissance Alphabet, according to Sebastian Serho.

183

ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING

For the purpose of devising a letter that may be drawn with
one stroke of the pen and at the same time retain the general
character of the larger, more Classic alphabet, in order that it
may be consistently used for less important lettering on the same
drawing, it is interesting to try the experiment of making a
skeleton of the letters in Figs. 1 arid 2. This consists in running
a single heavy line around in the middle of the strokes that form

JERSEY- CITY • FREE - PVBLIC • LIBRARY

•SCALE « ONE-INCH • LOCALS • FCMt - FEET •

BRTTL- AND -BACON • ARCHITECTS - III-RFTH-AVENVE-NEW-YORK-CnY'

Fig. 5. Title from Drawings for the Jersey City Public Library,
iSrite & Bacon, Architects.

the outline of these letters. This "skeleton" letter, with a few
modifications, will be found to make the best possible capital
letter for rapid use on working drawings, etc., and in a larger
size it may be used to advantage for titling details (Fig. 9). It
will also prove to be singularly effective for principal lettering

Fig. 6. "Skeleton" Construction of Letters shown in Fig. 2.

on plans, to give names of rooms, etc. (Fig. 13), while in a still
smaller size it may sometimes be used for notes, although a
minuscule or lower case letter will be found more generally useful
for this purpose.

In Fig. 6 are shown four letters where the skeleton has been
drawn within the outline of the more Classic form. It is un-

184

ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING

ftH

necessary to continue this experi-
ment at a greater length, as it is
believed the idea is sufficiently de-
veloped in these four letters. In
addition it is merely the theoreti-
cal part of the experiment that it
is desirable to impress upon the
draftsman. In practice it will be
found advisable to make certain
further variations from this "skel-
eton" in order to obtain the most
pleasing effect possible with a
single-line letter. But the basic
relationship of these two forms
will amply indicate the propriety
of using them in combination or
upon the same drawing.

It will be found that the letter
more fully shown in Fig. 10 is
almost the same as the letter pro-
duced by this "skeleton" method,
except that it is more condensed.
That is, the letters are narrower
for their height and a little freer
or easier in treatment. This
means that they can be lettered
more rapidly and occupy less
space, and also that they will pro-
duce a more felicitous effect.

In actual practice, the free cap-
itals shown in Fig. 10 will be
found to be of the shape that can
be made most rapidly and easily,
and this style or some similar let-
ter should be studied and practiced
very carefully.

Other examples of similar
one-line capitals will be found

185

12 ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING

used with classic outline or blacked-in capitals on drawings,
Figs. 3, 5 and 7.

In Figs. 8, 9 and 13 these one-line letters are used for
principal titles as well, and with good effect.

In Fig. 10 is shown a complete alphabet of this single-line

blLL OF INDIANA LIMESTONE
<JLNE5LL \ALL£Y TRi/,ST CO'5 WlLDm

Fig. 8. Title from Architectural Drawing, Claude Fayette Bragdon, Architect.

letter, and the adaptability of this character for use on details is
indicated by the title taken from one and reproduced in Fig. 9.
In the same plate, Fig. 10, is also shown an excellent form of
small letter that may be used with any of these capitals. It is

DETAIL

FREEJTONE JHEET C

4O5-C.OMMONWLA1TH AVt

v/ejite-mber . <S -J^O 1 •

frank • ChouCteau • Brown -Architect-
N * \3 • • Patrlo - Jtreet- £>o o"toj\ MCWJ >

Fig. 9. Title from Detail.

quite as plain as any Engineer's letter, and is easier to make,
and at the same time when correctly placed upon the drawing
it is much more decorative. This entire plate is reproduced at
a slight reduction from the size at which it was drawn, so that
it may be studied and followed closely.

186

ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING 13

LETTERS

^ PRINCIPA

TITLES*

•5GAIZ -THRZE
OFAN-INCH-EQVAL6-ONE
•FOOT

• Small Letters adbcd-

• eighyHmnopqnstuv •

• wxyz • for rapid work-

CAPITALS -ABCDEG
FHIJKLMNOPQRJT
UVXWYZ -FREE- HAND

Fig. 10. Letters for Architectural Office use.

187

14 ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING

Fig. 10 should be most carefully studied and copied, as it
represents such actual letter shapes as are used continually on

£r AKQHITECTS

'mnopq
rstuvwxuz 1234567
Plan, of SeconJfloDY

AKDEFGHUKLM
NOK^TUVWYL

A good alphabet £r
lettering plans

Fig. 11. Single-line Italic Letters, by Claude Fayette Bragdon.

architectural drawings, and such as would, therefore, be of the
most use to the draftsman. He should so perfect himself in these
alphabetf that he will have them always at hand for instant use.

188

ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING

The alphabets of capital and minuscule one-line letters
shown in Fig. 11 are similar in general type to those we have just
been discussing, except that they are sloped or inclined letters
and therefore come under the heading of "Italics." The Italic
letter is ordinarily used to emphasize a word or phrase in a
sentence where the major portion of the letters are upright;

J IN
CAPITAL FROM
THE/ TOWER, OF
THE, WINDS.

CORINTHIAN CAP
FROM HADRJAN
BUILDINGS.

FROM fc-^3, CA.ULICULUJI
TEMPL&OF MARS. ^T^ OFCQRJNTHIAN
EDM£ CAP

BALUSTER) 3Y JAN GALLO

Fig. 12. Drawing, by Claude Fayette Bragdon.

but where the entire legend is lettered in Italics this effect of
emphasis is not noticeable, and a pleasing and somewhat more
unusual drawing is likely to result. If it is deemed advisable to
emphasize any portion of the lettering on such a drawing, it is
necessary only to revert to the upright form of letter for that
portion.

The single-line capitals and small letters on the usual archi-
tectural plan or working drawing are illustrated in Fig. 13, where
such a plan is reproduced. This drawing was not one made spe-

189

16 ARCHITECTUKAL LETTERING

cially to show this point, but was selected from among several
as best illustrating the use of the letter forms themselves, as well
as good placing and composition of the titles, both in regard to
the general outline of the plan and their spacing and location in
the various rooms. It is apparent that it is not exactly accurate
in the centering in one or two places. For instance, in the general
title, the two lower lines are run too far to the right of the
center line, and this should be corrected in any practice work
where these principles will be utilized. It may be well to say
that the actual length of this plan in the original drawing was
thirteen inches, and the rest of it large in proportion. The
student should not attempt to redraw any such example as thid
at the size of the illustration. He must always allow for the re-
duction from the original drawing, and endeavor to reconstruct
the example at the original size, so that it would have the same
effect when reduced as the model that he follows.

The letters for notes and more detailed information should
be much simpler and smaller than and yet may be made to accord
with the larger characters. Such a rapid letter as that shown in
Fig. 10, for instance, may be used effectively with a severely clas-
sical title. Of course, no one with a due regard for propriety or
for economy of time would think of using the Gothic small letter
for this purpose.

The portion of a drawing shown in Fig. 14 illustrates an-
other instance of the use of lettering on an architectural working
drawing. The lettering denned by double lines is in this case
a portion of the architectural de'sign, the two letters on the pend-
ant banners being sewn on to the cloth while those on the lower
portion of the drawing are square-raised from the background
and gilded. Single-line capitals are used in this example for the
notes and information necessary to understand the meaning of
the drawing.

A drawing of distinction should have a principal title of
equal beauty, such as that shown in Fig. 5 or Fig. 7. The ex-
cellent lettering reproduced in Fig. 12, from a drawing by Mr.
Claude Fayette Bragdon, is a strongly characteristic and in-
dividual form, although based on the same "skeleton" idea as
the other types of single-line lettering already referred to.

190

ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING

The "skeleton" letter, formed on the classic Roman letter,
displays quite as clearly as does the constructive system of Al-
brecht Diirer, the distinctively square effect of the Roman capi-
tal. The entire Roman alphabet is built upon this square and
its units. The letters shown in Figs. 22 and 23 are redrawn from
rubbings of old marble inscriptions in the Roman Forum, and
may be taken as representative of the best kind of classic letter

BIGELOW
KENNARD8CO

GOLDSMITHS
SILVERSMITHS
JEWELERS tf
IMPORTERS
MAKERS OF
FINE mTCHES
AND CLOCKS

511 WASHINGTON ST
CORNEROFWEST SX

Fig. 15. Advertising Design, by Addison B. Le Boutillier.

for incision in stone. The Diirer letter, while a product of a later
period, is fundamentally the same, and differs only in minor, if
characteristic, details. However, for purposes of comparison it
will serve to show the difference between a letter incised in mar-
ble, or in any other material, and one designed for use in letter-
ing in black ink against a white background

COMPOSITION.

After acquiring a sufficient knowledge of letter forms, the
student is ready to begin the study of "lettering." While a
knowledge of architectural beauty of form is the first essential, it

193

20 ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING

BIGELOW, KENNARD AND CO.
WILL HOLD, IN THEIR ART
ROOMS, MARCH 25 TO APRIL 6
INCLUSIVE, A SPECIAL EXHIBI'
TION AND SALE OF GRUEBY
POTTERY INCLUDING THE
COLLECTION SELECTED FOR
THE BUFFALO EXPOSITION
MDCCCCI

WASHINGTON STREET COR"
NER OF WEST STREET BOSTON

Fig. 16. Cover Announcement, by Addison B. Le Boutillier.

194

ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING 21

is not the vital part in lettering, for the composition of these sep-
arate characters is by far the most important part of the problem.

Composition in lettering is almost too intangible to define by
any rule. All the suggestions that may be given are of necessity
laid out on merely mathematical formulae, and as such are in-
capable of equaling the result that may be obtained by spacing
and producing the effect solely from artistic experience and intui-
tion. The final result should always be judged by its effect upon
the eye, which must be trained until it is susceptible to the slight-
est deviation from the perfect whole. It is more difficult to define
what good composition is in lettering than in painting or any
other of the more generally accepted arts, and it resolves itself
back to the same problem. The eye must be trained by constant
study of good and pleasing forms and proportions, until it appre-
ciates instinctively almost intangible mistakes in spacing and ar-
rangement.

This point of "composition" is so important that a legend
of most beautiful individual letter forms, badly placed, will not
produce as pleasing an effect as an arrangement of more awkward
letters when their composition is good. This quality has been
so much disregarded in the consideration of lettering, that it is
important the student's attention should be directed to it with
additional force, in order that he may begin with the right feel-
ing for his work.

An excellent example of composition and spacing is shown
in Fig. 16, from a drawing by Mr. Addison B. Le Boutillier. The
relation between the two panels of lettering and the vase form,
and the placing of the whole on the paper with regard to its
margins, etc., are exceptionally good, and the rendered shape of
the vase is just the proper weight and color in reference to the
weight and color of the lettered panels.

In this reproduction the border line represents the edge of
the paper upon which the design itself was printed, and not a
border line enclosing the panel. The real effect of the original
composition can be obtained only by eliminating the paper oul"-
side of this margin and by studying the placing and mass of the
design in relation to the remaining "spot" and proportions of the
paper. Perhaps the simplest and most certain way to realize the

195

ARCHITECTUKAL LETTERING

STORIES

from the

o42?

Chap-Book

BEING A MISCELLANY 01

Curious and interefting Talw.
Hiftorie*. &c; nezofy com-
pofed AyMANY CELE>
BRATED "WRITER*
and very delight-
ful to read.

effect of the original is to cut out a rectangle the size of this panel
from a differently colored piece of paper, and place it over the
page as a " mask," so that only the outline of the original design

i O «/ O O

will show through.

The other example by the same designer, shown in Fig. 15,
is equally good. The use of the letter with the architectural
ornament, and the form, proportion, spacing and composition of
the lettering are all admirable.

The title page, by Mr. Claude Fayette Bragdon, shown in
Fig. 17, is a composition in-
cluding the use of many differ-
ent types of letters ; yet all be-
long to the same period and
style, so that an effect of sim-
plicity is still retained. In
composition, this page is not
unlike its possible composition
in type, but in that case no such
variety of form for the letters
would be feasible, while the en-
tire design has an effect of
coherence and fusion which the
use of a pen letter alone makes
possible, and which could not
be obtained at all in typograph-
ical examples. The treatment
of the ornament incorporated in
Claude this design should be noticed for
its weight and rendering, which
bear an exact relation to the "color" of the letter employed.

In Fig. 18 is a lettered panel that will well repay careful
study. The composition is admirable, the letter forms of great
distinction — especially the small letters — and yet this example
has not the innate refinement of the others. The decorative
panel at the top is too heavy, and the ornament employed has
no special beauty of form, fitness, or charm of rendering (com-
pare Figs. 15 and 16), while the weight of the panel requires

CHICAGO:

Printed for Herbert S. Stone & Company.
and are to be ibid by them atTXe

Caxton Building in Deartom Street
.656-

Fig. 17. Title Page, by
Fayette Bragdon.

196

AKCHITECTUKAL LETTERING

some such over-heavy border treatment as has been used. Here,
again, in the slight Gothic cusping at the angles a lack of restraint
or judgment on the part of the designer is indicated, this Gothic
touch being entirely out of keeping with the lettering itself, and
only partially demanded by the decorative panel. Of course, ic

Our First Exhibit of

ROOKWOOD
POTTERY

comprising several
hundred pieces of tke

MARSHALL FIELD
COMPANY

Fig. 18. Advertising Announcement.

is easy to see that these faults are all to be attributed to an
attempt to attract and hold the eye and thus add to the value
of the design as an advertisement; but a surer taste could have
obtained this result and yet not at the expense of the composition
as a whole. It is nevertheless an admirable piece of work.

In Fig. 19 is shown an example of the use of lettering in

197

AECHITECTUKAL LETTERING

composition, in connection with a bolder design, in this case
for a book cover, by Mr. H. Van Buren Magonigle. Note the
nice sense of relation between the style of lettering employed and
the design itself, as well as the subject of the work. The letter
form is a most excellent moderr ization of the classic Roman
letter shape (compare Figs. 22 and 23).

Fig. 19. Book Cover, by H. Van Buren Magonigle.

The student must be ever appreciative of all examples of the
good and bad uses of lettering that he sees, until he can distin-
guish the niceties of their composition and appreciate to tho
utmost such examples as the first of these here shown. It is only
by constant analysis of varied examples that he can be able to
distinguish the points that make for good or bad lettering.

198

ARCHITECTUKAL LETTERING 25

SPACING.

There is a workable general rule that may be given for
obtaining an even color over a panel of black lettering ; that is, if
the individual letters are so spaced as to have an equal area of
white between them this evenness of effect may be attained. But
when put to its use, even this rule will be found to be surrounded
by pitfalls for the unwary. This rule for spacing must not be
understood to mean that it applies as well to composition. It does
riot : it is, at the best, but a makeshift to prevent one from going
far wrong in the general tone of a panel of lettering, and must
therefore fully apply only to a legend employing one single type
of letter form.

One with sufficient authority and experience to give up de-
pendence upon merely arbitrary rules, and to rely upon his own
judgment and taste may, by varying sizes and styles of letters,
length of word lines, etc., obtain a finer and much more subtle effect.

To acquire this authority in modern lettering it is necessary
to observe and study the work turned out today by the best de-
signers and draftsmen, such as the drawings of Edward Penfield,
Maxfield Parrish, A. B. Le Boutillier and several others. The
architectural journals, also, publish from month to month beauti-
fully composed and lettered scale drawings by such draftsmen as
Albert E. Ross, H. Van Buren Magonigle, Claude Fayette Brag-
don, Will S. Aldrich and others, who have had precisely the same
problem to solve as is presented to the draftsman in every new
office drawing that he begins.

Of course, the freer and the further removed from a purely
Classic capital form is the letter shape employed by the drafts-
man, the less obliged is he to follow Classic precedent ; but at the
same time he will find that his drawing at once tends more toward
the bizarre and eccentric, and the chances are that it will lose in
effectiveness, quietness, legibility and strength.

The student will soon find that he unconsciously varies and
individualizes the letters that he constantly employs, until they
become most natural and easy for him to form. This insures his
developing a characteristic letter of his own, even when at the
start he bases it upon the same models as have been used by many
other draftsmen.

190

26 ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING

niNUSCULE OR SHALL LETTERS.

In taking up the use of the small or minuscule letter, a word
of warning may be required. While typographical work may
furnish very valuable models for composition and for the individ-
ual shapes of minuscule letters, they should never be studied for
the spacing of letters, as such spacing in type is necessarily arbi-
trary, restricted and often unfortunate. Among the lower case
types will be found our best models of individual minuscule
letter forms, and the Caslon old style is especially to be com-
mended in this respect; but in following these models the aim
must be to get at and express the essential characteristics of each
letter form, to reduce it to a "skeleton" after much the same
fashion as has already been done with the capital letter, rather
than to strive to copy the inherent faults and characteristics of
a type-minuscule letter. The letter must become a "pen form"
before it will be appropriate or logical for pen use; in other
words, the necessary limitations of the instrument and material
must be yielded to before the letter will be amenable to use for
lettering architectural drawings.

The small letters shown in Figs. 17, 18 and 20 are all
adapted from the Caslon or some similar type form, and all ex-
hibit their superiority of spacing over the possible use of any
type letter. Fig. 20 is a particularly free and beautiful example
indicating the latent possibilities of the minuscule form that are
as yet almost universally disregarded. An instance of the use
of the small letter shown in a complete alphabet in Fig. 10, may
be seen in Figs. 9 and 13.

In lettering plans for working drawings, the small letter ia
used a great deal. All the minor notes, instructions for the
builders or contractors,, and memoranda of a generally unimpor-
tant character, are inscribed upon the drawing in these letters.
Referring again to Fig. 10, the letters at the top of the page would
be those used for the principal title, the name of the drawing,
the name of the building or its owner, while the outline capitals
would be used in the small size beneath the general title, to indicate
the scale and the architect, together with his address. In a small
building, or one for domestic use, these same letters would be
employed in naming the various rooms, etc., although in an

200

s^r^B

i¥R

ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING 27

elaborate ornamental or public building, letters similar to those
in the principal title might be better used, while the minuscule
letter would be utilized for all minor notes, memoranda, direc-
tions, etc. By referring to Figs. 3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 13 and 14, examples
from actual working drawings and plans are shown, which should
sufficiently indicate the application of this principle.

It must again be emphasized that practice in the use of these
forms combined together in words, as well as in more diffi-
cultly composed titles and inscriptions where various sizes and
kinds of letters are employed, is the only method by which the
draftsman can become proficient in the art of lettering; and
even then he must intelligently study and criticise their effect

INTERJLVDI/S
beneath, the* Lines of SIR.
RICHARD LOVELACE/ VT
POEM oafled — " To Luoafta
on going1 to the_> w^ars"
wkioli sattK :

Fig. 20. Pen-drawn Heading, by Harry Everett Townsend.

after they are finished, as well as study continually the many good
drawings carrying lettering reproduced in the architectural jour-
nals. For this purpose, in order to keep abreast of the modern
advance in this requirement, he must early learn to distinguish
between the instances of good and bad composition and lettering.

ARCHITECTURAL INSCRIPTION LETTERING.

The use of a regular Classic letter for any purpose neces-
sitates the reversion to and the study of "actual Classic examples
for spacing and composition. In using this letter in a pen-
drawn design, certain changes must be made in adapting it from
the incised stone-cut form — which variations are, of course, prac-
tically the reverse of those required in first adapting the letter for
use in stone. The same letter for stone incision requires, in
addition, a careful consideration of the nature of the material,
and the spacing and letter section that it allows. Also the effect

ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING

FGHIK

C RSTV

Fig. 21. Study for Lettering on Granite Frieze of Boston Public Library,
McKim, Mead & White, Architects.

ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING 29

of a letter in the inscription in place must be carefully studied,
its height above or below and relation to the eye of the observer.
The fact is that the letter form must in this case be determined
solely by the light and shadow cast by the sun on a clear, bright
day, or diffused more evenly on a cloudy one. If in an interior
location its position in regard to light and view-point is even more
important, as the conditions are less variable.
CLASSIC ROMAN LETTERS.

In any letter cut in stone, or cast in metal, it is not the out-
line of the letter that is seen by the eye of the observer, but the
shadow cast by the section used to define the letter. This at once
changes the entire problem and makes it much more complicated.
In incising or cutting a letter into an easily carved material, such
as stone or marble, we have the examples left us by the inventors,
or at least the adapters, of the Roman alphabet. They have gen-
erally used it with a V-sunk section, and in architectural and
monumental work this is still the safest method and the one most
generally followed. One improvement has been made in adapt-
ing it to our modern conditions. The old examples were most
often carved in a very fine marble which allowed a deep sinkage
at a very sharp angle, thus obtaining a well-defined edge and a deep
shadow. In most modern work the letters are cut in sandstone
or even in such coarse material as granite, where sharp angles and
deep sinkage of the letter-section is either impossible, or for com-
mercial reasons influencing both contractors and stonecutters, very
hard to obtain. To counterbalance this fault a direct sinkage
at right angles to the surface of the stone before beginning the
V section has been tried, and is found to answer the purpose
very well, as it at once defines the edge of the letter with a sharp
shadow. See the two large sections shown in the upper part of
Fig. 31.

This section requires a letter of pretty good size and width
of section, and, therefore, may be used only on work far removed
from the eye, as is indeed alone advisable. An inscription that
is to be seen close at hand must rely upon the more correct section
and be cut as deeply as possible. For lettering placed at a great
height, an even stronger effect may be obtained by making the
incised section square, and sinking it directly into the stone.

205

ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING

Such pleasant grading of shadows as may be attained by the
other method is then impossible, and there are no subtle cross

Fig. 22. Classic Roman Alphabet.
From Marble Inscriptions in the Roman Forum.

lights on the rounding letters to add interest and variety, but
the letter certainly carries farther and has more strength.

206

ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING

In Fig. 21 is shown a photograph from a model of the
incised V-sunk letters cut in granite on the frieze of the Boston

Fig. 23. Fragments of Classic Roman Inscriptions.

Public Library. This photograph indicates the shadow effect that
defines the incised form of the letter, and will assist the student

207

32 AECHITECTUKAL LETTERING

somewhat in determining the section required for the best effect.
It will be observed that this letter is different in character from
the one used by the same architects in a different material, sand-
stone, shown in Fig. 24.

In Fig. 22 is shown an alphabet redrawn from a rubbing of
Roman lettering, and in Fig. 23 are shown portions of Classic
inscriptions where letters of various characters are indicated.
These letters were very sharply incised with a V-sunk section in
marble, and were possibly cut by Greek workmen in Rome. It
is on some such alphabet as this that we must form any modern
letter to be used in a Classic inscription or upon a Classic build-
ing. These forms should be compared with the letters shown in
Fig. 24, on the Architectural Building at Harvard, by McKim,
Mead & White, architects, where they were employed with a full
understanding of the differences in use and material. The Roman
letter was cut in marble; the modern letter in sandstone. Both
were incised in the V-sunk section, but the differences in material
will at once indicate that the modern letter could not have been
cut as clearly nor as deeply as the old one. The modern letter
was done a little more than twice the original size of the old one,
which explains certain subtleties in its outline as here drawn.
The sandstone being a darker material than the marble, the letter
should of necessity be heavier and larger in the same location,
in order to "carry" or be distinguishable at the same distance ;
while the Classic example, being sharply and deeply cut in a
beautiful white material which even when wet retains much of its
purity of color, would be defined by a sharper and blacker outline,
and therefore be more easily legible, other conditions being the
same, even for a longer distance. In both these figures, the
composition of the letters may be seen to advantage, as in even
the Classic example, where they are alphabetically arranged, they
are placed in the same relation to each other as they held in the
original inscription. A complete alphabet of the letter shown in
word use in Fig. 24, is shown at larger size in Fig. 25.

Although the lettering of the Italian Renaissance period was
modeled closely after the Classic Roman form, it was influenced
by many different considerations, styles and peoples.

808

ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING

Fig. 25. Complete Alphabet.
Redrawn from Inscription on Architectural Building (See Fig. 24).

210

ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING. 35

Fig. 25. (Continued)

21J

ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING

Fig. 26. Fragment of Italian Renaissance Inscription.
From the Marsuppini Tomb in Florence.

< V

g *

O x:

a |

3 5

ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING 37

ITALIAN RE-
NAISSANCE
LETTERING
ABCDEFG
HIJKLMNE
OPQRSTU
VXWYZ

Fig. 27. Italian Renaissance Lettering.
Adapted from Inscription shown in Fig. 26.

215

38 AECHITECTUEAL LETTERING

In Fig. 26 is shown a fragment of the inscription on the
Marsuppini tomb at Florence. This outline letter was traced
from a rubbing, and shows very nearly the exact character of tho
original, a marble incised letter. Fig. 27 is an alphabet devised

Fig. 28. Italian Renaissance Inscription at Bologna.

from this incised letter for use as a pen-drawn form and redrawn
at the same size. It will be noticed that in the letters shown in
the four lower lines a quite different serif* treatment has been
adopted, and certain of the letters, such as the E's, have been

/nKnfl-9-D-lfl
QOBl-DQRfiQH

Fig. 29. Italian Renaissance Inscription, Chiaravelle Abbey in Milan.

"extended" or made wider in proportion. These variations are
such as modern taste would generally advocate, but in the first
three lines of this plate the feeling, serif treatment and letter
width of the original have been retained; the only change has

*NOTE. The "serif" is the short spur or cross stroke used to define
and end the main upright and horizontal lines of the letter.

£516

ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING

ffiQOQ
QQ0G

OVGJI2

Fig. 30. Alphabet of Uncial Gothic Capital Letters, 16th Century.

217

ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING

been to narrow up the thin lines in relation to the thick lines
to the proportions that they should have in a solidly black and
inked-in letter form.

The two small panels, one from a monument in Bologna, and
one from the Chiaravelle Abbey in Milan, Figs. 28 and 29, show
a letter which was incised in stone and follows the so-called uncial
or round form, with characteristics showing the probable influence
of the Byzantine art and period. These two inscriptions may be
compared with another alphabet showing the uncial character
when used in black against a white page, as in Fig. 30. This
same style of letter was often used in metal, and may be seen in
many of the mortuary slabs of this and succeeding periods.

^SECTIONSv

• /\ ''STONE- /\

-MARfilX- -GRANITE-

•METAL-

-WGDD

Fig. 31. Inscription Letter Sections.

In many of the Kenaissance wall monuments the V-sunk
letter sections have been filled with a black putty to make the
letter very clear, and when this falls out, as it often does, the
V-cut section may still be seen behind it. Also in many Italian
floor slabs the letters are either V-sunk or shallow, square sinkages
filled with mastic, or sometimes they are of inlaid marble of a
color different from the ground. Again a V-sunk letter section
sometimes carries an additional effect because it is smoothly cut

218

ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING 41

ABCDEFG
HljKLMNM
NOPQQRFL
SVTWXYZ

Aatcde&fiijkl

Fig. 32. English l?th Century Letters, from Tombstones.

219

42 ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING

and finished and the surface of the stone is left rough, thus
obtaining a different texture and color effect; or, though more
rarely, the opposite treatment may be used. Then, again, the
sides of the letter sinkage may be painted or gilded. Often even
the shadow is painted into the section, but this is generally done
on interior cutting where there is no direct light from the sun,
because if direct sunlight does fall upon a letter so treated, a very
amusing effect occurs when the shadow is in any other position
than that occupied by the painted representation.

For still further effects, raised lettering may be cut on stone
surfaces. This is more expensive, as it necessitates the more labor
in cutting back the entire ground of the panel, but for certain
purposes it is very appropriate.

In such a letter the section may be a raised V-shape, or it
may be rounded over to make a half circle in section, as drawn
in Fig. 31. This latter form is especially effective in marble,
but it is, of course, very delicate and does not carry to any
great distance. Its use should be restricted to small monu-
mental headstones or to lettering to be read close to, and below
the level of, the eye.

A raised letter is more generally appropriate for cast copper
and bronze tablets, when its section may be a half round, a
raised V-form, or square-raised with sharp corners; or, better
still, a combination of square and V-raised with a hollow face.
See Fig. 31. Experience has proved that this last-named section
produces the most telling letter for an ordinary cast-metal panel.

Fig. 32 shows an alphabet of a letter derived from English
tombstones. This letter was cut in slate or an equally friable
material, and was comparatively shallow. A certain tendency
toward easing the acute angles may be observed in this alphabet,
evidently on account of the nature of the material in which it
was carved rendering it easily chipped or broken.

In wood carving, a letter exactly reversing, the V-sunk sec-
tion with direct sinkage, gives the best effect for a raised letter.

Every material, from its nature and limitations, requires
special consideration. A letter with many angles is not adapted
to slate, as that material is liable to chip and sliver; hence an

220

ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING 43

Fig. 33. German Black Letters, from a Brass.

221

44 ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING

uncial form with rounded angles suggests itself (as in Fig. 29),
and is, indeed, frequently used.

It would be quite impossible to take up in detail the entire
list of available materials and consider their limitations at length,
as the task would be endless. For the same reason, it is not
possible to take up each letter style and consider its use in stone
and other materials. Of course, a Roman letter or any other
similar form when drawn for stone-incised use must have its
narrow lines at least twice as wide as when drawn in ink, black
against a white background. (Compare Figs. 26 and 27.)

Experience and intuition combined with common sense will
go farther than all the theory in the world to teach the limitations

Fig. 34. Black-Letter Alphabet.

required by letter form and material. The student, however,
should bear in mind that it is not necessary that he himself should
make a number of mistakes in order to learn what not to do. He
may get just as valuable information at a less cost by observing
the mistakes and successes of others in actually executed work,
and avail himself of their experience by applying it with intelli-
gence to his own problems and requirements.

GOTHIC LETTERING.

Gothic lettering is extremely difficult, and has little practical
use for the architectural designer or draftsman. It is often
appropriate, but it is quite possible to get along without employing
this form at all. However, in case he should require a letter of
this style, it would be better to refer him to some book where he
may study its characteristics more -particularly, remembering it
is just as important he should know something of the history,

ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING

uses and materials from which this letter has been taken, as in
any instance of the use of the Roman form. Indeed, it might be

Fig. 35. Italian Black Letters, after Bergomensis.

said, it is even more important, as the Gothic letter is more uni-
versally misunderstood and misapplied than the simpler Roman
letter.

ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING

Fig. 36. English Gothic Text.

224

AECHITECTUEAL LETTERING 47

The alphabet of German blac!: letters: shown in Fig. 35 is
taken from a very beautiful example of Gothic black letter devised
by Jacopus Phillipus Foresti (Bergomensis) and used by him in
the title page of "De Claris Mulieribus," etc., published in Fer-
rara in 1497. Although Italian, this letter is as German in
character as any of the examples from the pen of Albrecht Diirer.
A German black letter redrawn from a brass is shown in Fig. 33,
while an English form of Gothic letter is shown in Fig. 36.

In Fig. 34 is another example of a black-letter alphabet.
The entire effect of a black-letter page depends upon the literal
interpretation of the title "black letter." That is, the space
of white between and among the letters should be overbalanced
by the amount of black used in denning the letter form itself.

Inasmuch as this letter is likely to be used but little by
architectural draftsmen, and as it ir, a much more difficult form
to compose than even the Roman type, it seems better to refer
the student to some treatise where its characteristics are taken
up more thoroughly and at greater length.

Any draftsman having occasion to use lettering to any extent
should have some fairly elaborate textbook always at .hand for
reference, and it is believed that "Letters and Lettering," a larger
treatise published by the Bates and Guild Company of Boston,
from which several of the illustrations reproduced in this pam-
phlet have been borrowed, contains more material in an easily
available form than any other textbook on the subject.

EXAMINATION PLATES.

In addition to the following Examination Plates the student
is expected to make careful reproductions of the lettering in the
foregoing section.

PLATES I, II, III.

Draw the alphabet, using the same construction as given in
Figs. 1 and 2, and making each letter two inches high. Put ten
letters on each of tlio firct two plates, and on the third arrange the
remainder, including the two forms of W given in Fig. 2.

225

48 ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING

PLATE IV.

Make a careful reproduction of Fig. 10 on the left-hand side
of the plate. The letters should be of the same size as in Fig. 10.
On the right-hand side of the plate use the letter forms shown in
Fig. 10 and of the same size, and letter the following title, arrang-
ing the legend to look well on the plate: Front Elevation, Coun-
try House at Glen Ridge, New Jersey, Aug. 24, 1903. David
Carlson Mead, Architect, No. 5925 State St., Chicago, 111.

PLATE V.

Reproduce on this plate Figs. 27 and 32 of the Instruction
Paper, using letters of the same size.

PLATE VI.

On the left-hand side of this plate, copy the lettering shown
in Fig. 9, making the letters at least as large as those in the illus-
tration. On the right-hand side, following the same style and
size, letter the following title: Detail of Entrance Porch, Coun-
try House at Glen Ridge, New Jersey, Sept. 10, 1903. David
Carlson Mead, Architect, No. 5925 State St., Chicago, 111.
This plate to be done in pencil only.

PLATE VII.

Using individual letter forms like those shown in Figs. 24
and 25, letter the following title: Museum of Architecture,
Erected in Memory of John Howard Shepard, First President
Technology, Bangor, Maine.

The letters should be of a size suited to the title; the title
should occupy five lines.

All plates except Plate VI should be inked in. The
student should first lay out his lettering in pencil in
order to obtain the proper spacing of the center line
on his page or panel. He should also place guide lines
in pencil at the top and bottom of his lettering for both
capitals and small letters.

The plates should be drawn on a smooth drawing
paper 11 inches by 15 inches in size. The panel inside
the border lines should be 10 inches by 14 inches. For
best work Strathmore (smooth finish) or Whatman's
hot-pressed drawing paper is recommended.

The date, the student's name and address, and the
plate number should be lettered on each plate in one-
line letters such as are shown in Fig. 10.

'-pKE STUDY OF ARCHITECTURAL, DRAWING
•*• INCLUDES PREPARATORY WORK IN USE
OF INSTRUMENTS, MECHANICAL DRAWING,
THE WORKING OUT OF PROBLEMS IN DE-
SCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY, CASTING SHADOWS,
AND PERSPECTIVE, FREEHAND DRAWING,
LETTERING AND RENDERING IN PEN AND
INK, WASH AND COLOR, THE STUDY OF THE
ORDERS AND THEIR USE IN DESIGN, AND THE
CARRYING OUT OF THESE DESIGNS IN WORK-
ING DRAWINGS. ALL'THESE MUST BE CARE-
FULLY STUDIED IN DETAIL. IN THIS BOOK
WE CONSIDER SOME OF THE GENERAL PRIN-
CIPLES OF ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING, IN-
CLUDING RENDERING IN WASH AND COLOR.

FRAGMENTS FROM ROMAN TEMPLE AT CORI, ITALY.
One of the most interesting examples of architectural rendering- in existence.

Original drawing by Emanuel Brune.
Reproduced fy permission of Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING.

PART I.

Instruments and Materials. The study of mechanical draw-
ing has acquainted the student with the use of the ordinary drawing
instruments and materials. Those required for architectural work
are substantially the same.

Pencils. Soft pencils are used; a draftsman cannot have ad-
vanced far in ability before becoming familiar with the B B pencil,
which will draw any line, from the finest to the coarsest, and give the
greatest freedom for all kinds of work, from sketching to full-size
details.

In architects' offices it is an almost invariable rule for the new-
fledged student and young draftsman to use hard pencils — "nails,"
as they are called by more experienced men. A soft pencil gives a
much more agreeable expression of ideas on paper than a hard pen-
cil; the latter should be reserved for mechanical work. The drafts-
man must not allow himself to become less accurate as he gains greater
freedom, and the use of a soft pencil gives no excuse for a careless
or slovenly drawing. II H, F and B B will be found the most useful
grades. For laying out work, H H is often used.

Erasers. The noted architect, H. H. Richardson, said that
"an eraser is a draftsman's best friend. " For work on detail paper,
a firm rubber is best, but a soft rubber is most serviceable for remov-
ing ordinary pencil marks from all kinds of paper, including the thin
tracing papers, without injury to the surface. It will be found that
the eraser can be frequently used in studying outlines, and it is the
custom for rapid draftsmen to let the pencil lines run where they
will, trusting to the eraser to make the outline true. A large size
ink eraser will be found easier on the hands than a small one. In
making erasures a typewriter's shield of metal with different sizes

For some of the text and several of the illustrations in ABCHTTECTTTBAIJ DRAWING
the French work, Elements et Theorie de 1'Architecture, Vol. I., by Guadet, has been
drawn on freely. The four volumes of this work by Guadet cannot be too highly recom-
mended. Even those not familiar with the French language will find it an excellent ref-
erence work on account of the numerous useful illustrations it contains.

229

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

of openings, corresponding to the erasures to be made, called in
draftsman's parlance, the " office goat, " is useful. . Holes can be cut
in cardboard or detail paper for this purpose.

Set of Instruments. Good instruments are advisable, as it
is hard enough to make good drawings, even with the best. Com-
passes with pencil and pen points and extension legs; large and small
dividers, bow-pen and bow-pencil, and two ruling pens, form the
usual equipment of the architectural draftsman's instrument case.
Besides these a simple form of proportional dividers will be found
very useful, especially in changing drawings from one scale to another,
and also when it is desired to translate a rough sketch into a definite
scale, preserving the proportions of the sketch. A small protractor
will be sufficient for the rare occasions when an architect lays off
angles to a given number of degrees.

Beam compasses are useful, though many offices -have only
long straight edges and carpenters' clamps for this purpose. Some-
times a taut string .will serve the purpose where perfect accuracy is
not required, or two points on a straight edge may be taken, one
point being held with one hand, while a curve is struck from another
point by a pencil held in the other hand.

Drawing Boards. It is necessary to have two drawing boards,
one a "Double Elephant" size, 28 X 42 inches, to accommodate
paper of a size called " Double Elephant, " which is 27 X 40 inches,
thus allowing \ inch at the sides and an inch at the ends; the other
board 23 X 32 inches, to accommodate the size of paper called
"Imperial," which is 22 X 30 inches. It will be found convenient
also to have a small " Half Imperial " board 23 X 16 inches in size.
These boards should have a straight grained cleat at each end, or
should be entirely surrounded with a framework of hard wood, having
soft wood in the center. Cherry makes a good hard wood for the
frames or ends, and pine or white wood for center. In many offices
the boards are made entirely of pine or white wood, but it will be
found preferable to have better made boards, and to take good care
of them, keeping them square. If adjacent sides of the board make
a true right-angle, the T-square can be used on these two sides, which
is an advantage in drawing long lines. When the boards have cleats
at the ends only, however, it is always necessary to use the T-square
from the left-hand end only.

230

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

Triangles and T-Squares. There are T-squares to cor-
respond to the size of the boards. They are usually made of straight,
fine grained hard wood. The simplest form of fixed T-square will
be found the most satisfactory for general office use. As even the
best are apt to vary, it is a good idea to number every T-square in the
office and note the number on commencing a drawing. If, however,
the T-square is changed, and the new square does not line up with
the old work, a thumb tack in the edge of the head next the drawing
board may be used to bring the blade into line, as shown in Fig. 1.
The drawing edge (upper edge) of a T-square should never be used
as a straight edge for paper cutting.

Two triangles are required, one 30 degrees to 60 degrees, and one
of 45 degrees. Triangles are made of wood, hard rubber or celluloid.

riaterials for Wash= Drawings. For tinting, a nest of tinting
saucers, brushes, a soft sponge, large blotters, a stick of India ink,
a slate slab for grinding it, a
half cake of carmine and a
half tube of Prussian blue will
make a good beginning.

Paper. Paper comes in
certain conventional sizes.
" Whatman's paper " is most

easily obtained in two sizes, i ig. i. T-Squaro with Timmb Tack,

the "Imperial," 22X30inches,

and " Double Elephant," 27 X 40 inches, and is a useful paper for
all-around architectural work, being good for pencilling, inking in,
and wash drawings; colors can be laid on it even after erasures
have been made. The Whatman " hot-pressed " paper has a smooth
surface and is generally used for fine pencil or ink drawings. The
Whatman "cold-pressed " paper has a rough surface and good texture,
and is useful for all-around work.

Tinted Papers. Gray or other colored papers are frequently
employed, pencil or pen and ink being used for the lines and shadows,
and chalk or Chinese white for the high lights. Pastels and water
colors are used on special colored papers; " scratch papers " are those
on which white is obtained by scratching through the colored surface
of the paper. Some of these papers, including buff or manila detail
paper, have already been fully described under the subject of meehan-

231

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

ical drawing. The process of stretching paper is also there
described.

Tracing Paper. In architectural work a great deal of tracing
paper is used. A cheap manila tracing paper is convenient for rough
preliminary studies not intended to be preserved. "Alba," a white
tough tracing paper, and " Economy, " a cheaper form, are very good
for pencil sketching and also for careful pencil drawings. Rowney's
English tracing paper is very transparent, is good for accurate pen-
cilling, and takes color, but becomes brittle with age; it is, however,
the best paper for careful studies of architectural work. Bond paper
which comes in sheets 20 X 28 inches, is very useful for working
drawings of small frame houses, as the drawing can be inked-in and
blue prints taken directly from this paper without the necessity of
tracing.

Some offices make many of their details in black pencil on this
paper and where work on different houses is similar, let blue prints
of these details serve for each new building.

Tracing Cloth. Tracing cloth is used for important work
where the tracing will be roughly used or where changes are likely
to be made in the drawing. In drawing on tracing cloth, there are
three ways of making the ink flow well: (1) The most common is
to rub powdered chalk over the surface, dusting off the superfluous
chalk; (2) Benzine applied with a towel will clean the cloth; (3)
Oxgall, a preparation obtainable at any artists' materials store, may
be mixed with the ink. Sometimes pencil drawings are made directly
on the cloth, and after inking-in benzine is used to remove all pencil
marks. As a rule, the rough side of the tracing cloth is used, but
some draftsmen prefer to ink-in on the smooth side, thinking thev
can make a cleaner line, and then turn the cloth over to color the
drawing on the rough side with water colors or crayons.

Scales. Scales for architectural work are like those used for
mechanical drawing, one-quarter inch to the foot for working draw-
ings, and three-quarter inch to the foot for details, being the cus-
tomary scales used in American offices, though some offices use one-
eighth inch to the foot, with one-half inch to the foot for details — the
custom usually followed in England. It is customary to make full-
size details of mouldings and of special constructive parts. Three-
sixteenths inch to the foot is sometimes useful as a scale drawing, or

232

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

in laying out stairs in section, as will be described later. This scale
is also frequently used for exhibition drawings. One and one-half
inch to the foot, one inch to the foot, and three inches to the foot, are
also used. For the scale of three inches to the foot, the ordinary
quarter-inch scale may be read as inches instead of feet, as one-
quarter inch is one-twelfth of three inches. The three-quarter inch
scale is the favorite among carpenters for the reason that the ordinary
two-foot rule can be used on the drawings; as there are twelve-six-
teenths of an inch in every three-quarters of an inch, each sixteenth
of an inch on the rule represents one inch actual measurement. The
inch scale is very popular for drawing mantels, interior finish, etc.,
where the total dimensions can be read directly from the two-foot
rule, each inch being equal to the foot full size.

The accompanying illustration of an architect's scale, Fig. 2,
shows the usual divisions on a scale for ordinary architectural work.

—^

963

r 16

Fiii|i mi mimi
1 so 1 as1 ate

Ml
75

1 1 1 1 ' 1 1 II
70 65*

(

£ 1

t? 9

1 1

III

Fig. 2. Architects' Scale.

A six-inch scale of this size is very convenient for ordinary measure-
ments and a similar one eighteen inches or two feet long is useful for
laying out larger work. This scale gives the full-size measurements
in inches divided into sixteenths with the scales of sixteenths reading
in the reverse order from zero up, so that the number can be read
directly from a sixteenth scale or doubled for a thirty-second inch
scale. The common quarter-inch and eighth-inch scales are given, as
well as the half-inch and one-inch scales. The useful three-quarter
inch scale is given with the three-sixteenths scale in reverse order.

The accompanying sketch, Fig. 3, shows how a scale may be
used in laying out staircases in plan and section much more rapidly

235

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

than is usual in architects' offices. The sketch shows the plan and
section of a staircase at a scale of one-quarter of an inch to the foot,
the staircase to be three feet six inches wide. The section shows
that the floors are nine feet six inches between finished surfaces.
As it is desirable to economize space, the stairs are to be laid out with
about seven and one-half inches rise and eleven inches tread. Divid-
ing nine feet six inches by seven and one-half, we find that fifteen

-.L1N.ES' & ^^ '
„. ^-

i i

...

r.i"

-41

•FE>

BT-

—

•PI

Pig. 3. Use of Scales in Laying out Stairs.

risers will give us slightly over seven and one-half inches. To lay
out fourteen treads — which locate the fifteen risers including the first
and last — instead of spacing over fourteen treads, start from the first
riser, lay off parallel to run of stairs in plan eleven feet on the quar-
ter-inch scale; then draw a line perpendicular to the run of the stairs.
Tip the scale until the zero coincides with the first tread and twelve

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

coincides with the line just drawn. Each division of the quarter
scale marked off as a scale of proportional parts will give us a series
of points through which we can draw parallel lines which will locate
the risers eleven inches apart. If it is found that the stairs do not
arrive at the point desired, the scale can be tipped more or less and
each tread decreased or increased. The same method can be fol-
lowed for laying out the stairs in elevation.

LINE DRAWING.

Character of Line. The thickness of the line in drawing
should be the same throughout its length, except occasionally in
perspective rendering. The line may vary in different parts of the
same drawing, and in different drawings, according to how much or
how little detail is to be shown, but in every case the lines should be
firm and clear. Those parts of an elevation which are nearest to the
spectator should be drawn in heavier lines than the more distant parts.
Thick lines generally tend to simplify the design. The outline of
the curved mouldings, excepting those circular in section, should be
drawn freehand, as they can be given more character in that way
than if made with the compass.

The compass should be used in such a way that the point will
not make large holes in the paper. The arms of the compass should
be bent so that the pencil point and needle point will be perpendicular
to the paper. Pencil lines should be made without a heavy pressure
so as not to dent the paper. The ruling pen should be held like the
pencil and used very lightly, for if too much weight is put upon the
pen, the paper will be cut, and if the pen is pressed too hard against
the T-square the blades of the pen will be closed and the lines become
weaker. It is also necessary that the ink should always flow freely
from the drawing pen. It should be renewed frequently and the pen
should be cleaned each time it is refilled. If the ink refuses to flow,
it frequently can be started by touching the end of the pen to the
moistened finger, capillary attraction immediately starting the ink
to flow.

Ordinary writing ink should not be used with the drawing pen.
After the drawing is inked in, the pencil lines can be erased. The
student will eventually become accustomed to making the important
lines with the pencil and putting in many of the lines of the drawing

237

ARCHITECTUKAL DRAWING

immediately in ink, between limiting lines in pencil. But the drafts-
man should be very sure of himself and his drawing before using
this method.

Shade lining, or indicating
shadows by making the lower
and right-hand edges of pro-
jecting planes in elevation
— i heavier, see Fig. 4, is used in
architectural drawing, espe-
cially in illustrations for publi-
cation. In office work, when
it is desired to show the shad-
ows, the latter are generally
laid in washes. The brilliancy
of the architectural drawing
shown in many recent exam-
ples, especially from New York
offices, is much increased by
strengthening the outline of
Fig. 4. shade Lines. projecting members and orna-
mental parts, by accenting cer-
tain points, and by carrying through only certain important lines
of mouldings, and drawing other lines only a short distance. Fin-
ished lines coming down on to projecting surfaces may be stopped
short just before reaching the surface, giving effect of high light on
those surfaces, as shown in Fig. 4; and lines at outer angles may
be carried slightly across each other, giving a firm intersection, in-
stead of stopping just at
the junction. For plans
the same holds good, as is
shown in Fig. 5.

In an elevation, the
planes toward the front
may be drawn with dark
lines and those farther back with lighter lines. Joint lines in masonry
and the lighter lines of carving should be drawn in ink which has been
diluted with water. The design for the National Maine Monument,
page 9, shows a good method of lining an architectural drawing.

Fig. 5. Junctions of Lines.

First Prize Design. National Maine Monument.

B. Tan Bnren Magonigle, Architect.

10 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

Sometimes lines of different colors, as red to indicate brick,
blue for stone, yellow for wood, etc., are used on working drawings
to take the place of tinting.

DEFINITIONS.

Architectural drawing is geometric. If the student is making
the drawing of a model, he should try to think how the author of the
model laid it out, and how he, the student, would proceed if he had
the opportunity to lay it out. He will find that the model is repre-
sented on paper by the different projections such as the plans, sections
and elevations. These are laid out to a certain scale; that is to say,
one-fourth inch to the foot, which means that one-fourth inch in the
drawing represents one foot in the model; or one-eighth inch to the
foot, etc.

Definition of Plan. A plan of a building is a section cut
by a horizontal plane through the walls, supports, etc., at such a
height so as to show the greatest number of peculiarities in construc-
tion, walls, doors, windows, supports, columns and pilasters, fire-
places, etc. It is possible to consider a plan as a horizontal impres-
sion that could be taken of the building in course of construction
when it had arrived at a certain level in the height of a story. On
the plan the construction is shown invariably by horizontal sections,
but it is possible to project up all that is below and also to show what
is above. In the first case the plan will show the architectural por-.
tions which project beyond the base of the walls or supports such as
the base, steps, approaches, etc. In the other case it will show
vaultings, ceilings, entablatures, cornices, etc. Sometimes it is desira-
ble to show both — half of each — provided the parts shown are suffi-
ciently interesting or necessary for explaining the entire scheme.

Definition of Section. The section is a plane cut through
a building vertically, that is to say, it is the same thing perpendicularly
that the plan is horizontally. This plane should be taken along the
line of some main axis.

A single section rarely is sufficient to give all the interior of the
building. It is necessary to have, as a rule, at least two, one a longi-
tudinal section, perpendicular as a rule to the facade, and the other
a transverse section, usually parallel to the facade. Very often a

240

AKCHITECTURAL DRAWING 11

small section of the front alone is made. This should preferably be
called a profile of the front.

Definition of Elevations. The elevations of a building are
the projections of the building on vertical planes parallel to the side
of the building of which an elevation is desired. Except in the case
of complete uniformity, it is necessary to have several elevations in
order to show the complete exterior of a building, such as the principal
facade, side elevations, and rear elevation.

THE IMPORTANCE OF AXES IN ARCHITECTURAL
DRAWING.

The axis is the key of a design or of any composition. An axis
in geometry is a line which separates into two equal parts any sym-
metrical plane figure, or the pole of a surface of revolution or of a
regular solid, such as a rectangular prism with a regular base. In
architecture the idea of the axis is greater than 'this. It is in reality
a vertical plane through the whole building separating the building
into two parts symmetrically, or in such a way that they balance one
another.

Although the graphical representation is confined to a straight
line, do not forget that it is not simply a line. Take for example a
church; in drawing the plan, the axis of this plan will be a straight
line separating it into two parts, but this line itself will be only the
projection of the central vertical plane which is the axis of the whole
building; and the keystones of the vault, the lights which drop from
them, the center of the rose window, etc., are in the axis of the church.
Notice besides this that the straight line which is the axis of the
plan, and the line which is the axis of the front and rear facade,
the line which is the axis of the transverse section — these lines are
only the traces, all belonging to some axis plane, as it may be called,
and this plane is the principal axis.

But there are other minor axes. Parallel to the main axis are
the axes of the side arms and between these are the axes of the columns.
Running transversely are the axes of the transept, those of each bay,
the radiating axes of the chapels, etc.

In laying out the drawings of a church, for example, first place
all of these different axes with the utmost accuracy. This method
of laying out the drawings of a building by starting with the axes may

241

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

be best explained by examples. Let us commence by the study of
a plan, that of a vestibule, in a public building; e.g., the Hotel des
Monnaies at Paris, Fig. 6.

After having drawn the axis 1, which is the principal axis of the
building, it will be noticed that there are five bays of the central
pavilion which are spaced equally. Of these draw first the extreme
axes, 2 2; by dividing the space between axes 1 and 2 into equal parts,
the intermediate axes 3 3, will be found. In this way the chances of
error would be decreased, for if the axes were placed in the order
1, 3, 2, the possible error would be doubled. Now taking the portion
to the right, draw first the extreme axis 4, then 5, and divide the space
4 5 into equal parts, which will give the axis 6.

Fig. 6. Plan of Vestibule of Hotel des Monnaies.

Now consider the axes of the rows of columns 7 7. These are
to be arranged in relation to the axes 3 3 ; finally the axes 8 8 are
located in relation to the extreme axes 7 7, being checked in relation
to the axes 22.

In the longitudinal direction the same process will be gone
through, placing the first axis 1, then the extremes 2 2; by division
3 3 will be obtained, and dividing the spaces between the axes 1, 2,
and 3, into half, the axes 5 and 6 of the columns are obtained. The
secondary axes will be placed in the same way. Finally it will be
found advisable to check up the different steps by verifying the dis-
tances of the secondary symmetrical axes from the central main axis.

243

AKCHITECTURAL DRAWING

In carefully studying the plan, and the different methods of
drawing it, the student will become convinced that the methods of
spacing the axes are of great importance, and that in this way he will
arrive at exactness and will avoid many mistakes.

The student must understand that it is much more difficult to
draw a good plan than is popularly supposed ; more difficult, perhaps,
than anything else, from the mere fact that everything builds up
from the plan. In the plan especially, extreme exactness is necessary

Fig. 7. Hotel des Monnaies, Transverse Section of Vestibule.
Section on YY.

Fig. 8. Hotel des Monnaies, Longitudinal Section of Vestibule.
Section on ZZ.

and the student will do well, in order to become familiar with archi-
tectural drawing, to practice the drawing of plans constantly.

Now let us consider the sections, taking the same example that
we have just considered. The student will easily see that the archi-
tect cannot study his composition thoroughly without the aid of
numerous sections. Two sections, however, are especially necessary,
those following the principal transverse and longitudinal axes of

243

14 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

Symmetry. If the student wishes to draw both of them, he should
decide first which one of the two controls the other. See Figs. 7
and 8. He will see that in this case it is the transverse section, par-
allel to the front elevation. The other, the longitudinal section, is
chiefly the projection of elements of the other section. Therefore,
in this case the drawing should be commenced by laying out the
transverse section.

First, place the axes just as has been done in the plan, 1, 2 2, 3 3,
•77, 88. In regard to the profiles or the parts in section, the first
thing necessary is to locate the heights of the essential parts, taking
for the first level the main floor A A, next drawing the upper line of
the capitals of the columns B B, then the centers of the vaults C D.

Starting with these principal lines, draw in the details, as for
example, the heights of the bases in relation to the floor A A. The
capitals and heights of the architraves will be located in relation to
the line B B. It is evident that if all the measurements were taken
from the level of the main floor A A, the least inexactness would affect
the capitals, while if the total height of the column A B is once deter-
mined, no mistake can be made in the height of the base and that of
the capital, and even admitting a slight inexactness, it will be inap-
preciable on the total height of the shaft of the column.

In all which has preceded, the drawing has been laid out along
the lines of the axes. But besides these are some conventional methods
by which the drawing of profiles in section or in elevation can be
facilitated. Let us take for example a fragment of the Doric order —
one from the Parthenon, Fig. 9. To reproduce this drawing one should
measure the different projections by referring them to one single
vertical line. In this case the axis of the column would not furnish
a convenient axis for measurement, as with exception of the column,
it determines nothing. It is best to proceed just as in measuring an
existing order, that is, by dropping a plumb line from the overhanging
cornice and measuring the distance from that plumb line to the
various members. But this vertical line from the outer member of
the cornice will be only useful for laying out the profile and in locating
the axis of the column; axes should be drawn in every other possible
case. For instance, place the column on the axis A; the triglyphs,
on B ; the metopes, on C; the head of the lion, on D, etc. To obtain
the heights draw the principal divisions in first; the total height of

244

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

the capital, the total height of the architrave, the complete frieze,
the complete cornice; then draw in each detail in height within these
first divisions.

The -channels of the triglyphs, the guttae, etc., are all drawn in
on their own axes. As for the channels of the column, these can only
be drawn by projecting them. Do not copy them from the drawing,
but draw out a plan, dividing the circumference into twenty parts
or whatever number the design calls for, and project these divisions
up to the elevation.

Study the model care-
fully before copying it; thus,
in this example a close ex-
amination will show that
the architrave is slightly
sloping while the frieze is
not. If the student has the
opportunity to see mould-
ings similar to those which
he is drawing, he should
study them carefully. It
cannot be too often re-
peated that architectural
drawing should not confine
itself to exercise for the
hand; there should be the
opportunity for real study
of whatever is drawn.

Limiting Lines. In
geometry, we have learned
what the abscissa and the ordinate are; i.e., the elements of reference by
which a point is referred to a system of fixed rectilinear co-ordinate
axes. For every part of a design of which the elements are not geomet-
rical lines, such as a right line or circle, the method of abscissa and
ordinate is used, as in laying out profiles of mouldings or curved orna-
ments such as eggs in the egg and dart motive. Take for example a
baluster, Fig. 10; it is evident that it should be drawn in relation to its
axis. The student will mark the general divisions, A B the die, B C the
base, C D the shaft, D E the capital, after which the secondary lines

Capital and Entablature from the
Parthenon.

245

AECHITECTUKAL DBAWING

of the mouldings should be drawn in. Between C and D, however,

the profile of the shaft may vary very much and the student will not

be able to copy it except by laying off horizontal divisions. For that

purpose, draw the limiting lines of its greatest width ra ra, mark its

point of application M, and repeat this operation on the drawing. In

the same manner lay off the line n n, and the point N, which gives

the smallest diameter of the shaft, and do

^ , not mark these points by a single point

- with the pencil, but be careful to draw the

||t I j! limiting (in this case vertical) lines at every

point, and do not erase them until after you
have inked in the drawing. These lines will
be a safe guide and will enable one to make
an exact and clean drawing.

As another example take the fragment of
the cornice with different ornaments, taken
from the Temple of Concord, at Rome, Fig.
11. The construction lines marked on the
drawing, and which should be kept in
pencil .until the drawing is completed, show
especially well the method previously ex-
plained. *

Finally, to produce an architectural
drawing with precision demands primarily
a rational method and methodical habits.
The design gains by its facility, but the
method can only be a general one In its
application, an intelligent draftsman will
recognize each time what should be the
logical sequence in carrying out the drawing.
And still, all of this will be only the mechanism of the design; it is
necessary to put into it taste and sentiment. For all of this there is
only one precept — it is by practice that one becomes a good workman.
Oblique Projections. It happens often that in an elevation
or section architectural motives are represented obliquely in relation
to the principal plane of projection. Thus in a circular building a
series of similar windows are in elevation at different angles, conse-
quently the widths differ, but the heights do not.

Fig. 10. Baluster.

246

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

It is necessary to become familiar with these conditions of draw-
ing which occur frequently. It is here above all that geometry will
be very useful, for that study includes the planes of projection and
planes of development.

While there is some little difficulty, there is also much profit to
be gained in projecting an architectural motive at an angle. In order
to project a motive at an angle correctly, one must understand the
motive thoroughly. An architectural arrangement drawn out in
direct elevation only, will not tell the whole story, but if drawn in
oblique projection a thorough understanding of the arrangement
is gained.

Fig. 11. Entablature from the Temple of Concord, Rome.

It is recommended, therefore, as a very useful exercise to draw
out in oblique projections, designs that are made in direct elevation;
it is a good exercise in design, but above all it is an excellent prepara-
tion for architecture, compelling the designer to analyze his model
and to see it as a whole; to understand its projections and to compre-
hend the position of the different details. The designer realizes that
he is working on the real building rather than in simple imagination,
and so will soon see of how much advantage these exercises will
be to him.

Consider, for example, two windows, one in direct elevation and
the other projected at an angle. It is evident that the direct eleva-

247

18 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

tion permits the study of proportions and it is evident also that the
oblique projection shows more than the direct elevation of the
different parts of the window. In the same manner draw out the de-
velopment of such parts of buildings as vaultings, circular walls, etc.

All this can be summed up thus: Study architectural drawing
as an architect. Become accustomed to see in the drawing the
object represented. It is very necessary that the drawing should
be nothing more for the designer than a sort of language, and that
he should see in reality the thing itself, just as a composer of music,
as he puts down on paper the notes of his score, can hear them as
though they were being played; just as everyone in reading a book of
printed characters never notices the printed letters but feels the emo-
tions that are meant to be conveyed as though the words were spoken.

Modeling an Architectural Drawing. A design is only
complete when in addition to the outlines, it is modeled, that is to
say when the form is expressed. The most common process for
modeling an architectural design is by wash drawing, but the methods
of modeling are the same whether done by wash drawing or by render-
ing with the pen, the pencil, or other processes. It is not possible
to say that modeling has absolute rules, or that all methods are good
even if the desired effect is obtained; i.e., if the reliefs and the forms
are represented in their true relations to one another. There are,
however, certain general principles that can be used as a guide in
modeling a drawing.

Shadows at 45 Degrees. It is the custom to assume that
the light rays fall in a direction, the horizontal and vertical projec-
tions of which make an angle of 45 degrees with the line of the ground.
The luminous ray itself does not make, in reality, an angle of 45
degrees with the planes of projection. Its direction is that of the
diagonal of a cube whose faces are respectively parallel and perpen-
dicular to the planes of projection.

This method has two advantages; the laying out is easier, which
it is well to consider, for the drawing of shadows is often a long and
complicated process, and in this case the depth of the shadows is
equal to the projections. Consequently, the size of the shadows
permits anyone to understand, without further drawings, the projec-
tion of one architectural body in relation to another, and the relative
positions in space of the different surfaces in one body.

248

DETAIL FROM TEMPLE OF MARS VENGEUR.

An example of classic lettering1, conventional shadows and rendering".
Reproduced by permission of Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING 19

The drawing of shadows is often difficult; it is one of the essential
parts of descriptive geometry that will also be found in special trea-
tises. As for indicating shadows which cannot be laid out accur-
ately, such as shadows of decorative parts, it is a matter of
judgment to determine the amount of projection—a knowledge
gained by experience.

Values. After having drawn the shadows, lay over the shadow
part a uniform tint. Now the drawing will be seen to be divided
into lights and shadows.

As a first principle, it is necessary always to make a distinction
between light and shade; shadows will always be modeled, lights will
also always be modeled; but it is necessary to be able to distinguish
clearly which is light and which is shade in the same drawing, at
least where there are large spaces between different planes. The
parts having the darkest tint in the light should remain lighter than
the lightest reflected lights of the parts in shadow. Besides this,
geometrical design, not being able to make use of the illusions of
perspective to show distances and projections, has to make use of
expressive modeling, since it is the values of the tints alone which will
indicate the relative distances and projections.

Therefore, in order to bring forward or to set back one plane
with relation to another, the only resource will be to tint them differ-
ently. Notice what happens in this respect in nature; for instance,
an object placed near the eye is modeled very clearly and one at some
distance is modeled much less, and one at a great distance or on the
horizon, is only a mass without details. So, the nearer the object is,
the more it is modeled and the greater are the differences between
the shadows and the lights; on the contrary, the further away it is
the more the lights and shadows tend to mingle. In the foreground
there will be strong shadows and high lights, in the distance dull
shadows and softened lights; between these an intermediate propor-
tion of shadows and lights. Therefore, in facade, the planes far-
thest away from the eye will have the least modeling, while the
nearer the plane is to the eye, the more is the modeling accented.

As stated above, in nature every light and every shade is modeled
and graded; the shadows are more noticeably graded than the lights.
The reason for this gradation of shadows is the indirect lighting

251

20 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

thrown back on the shaded objects by neighboring lighted objects,
and this is called reflected light.

Take for example a cylindrical body like the shaft of a column.
It is easy to distinguish on this cylinder cast shadows and shades.
The cast shadows are those which result from the interception by
another solid, of luminous rays which without it would have lighted
the cylinder. Shades result from the absence of light on the part of
the cylinder which by its position cannot receive light rays. Naturally
shadows are less affected by reflected light than shades. The reflec-
tion of light or the throwing back of light which creates the reflected
light comes from lighted bodies, which in theory may be considered
as secondary sources of rays of light of which the resultant will be
in the direction opposite to the light. That is, since the lighting is in a
direction of 45 degrees from above down, and conventionally from
left to right, the direction of the reflected light is in the direction
of a diagonal from the lower right front corner to the upper rear
left corner.

This conventional theory is to be followed as the rule for model-
ing. Commence with the lights, or where the gradations are more
easily comprehended. Take a solid of white stone, for example, a
sphere. It is easy to comprehend that the strongest lighting will be
at the point of intersection of the surface of the sphere with the
luminous ray which prolonged will pass through the center. Then,
around this pole of light, the angle of the luminous ray with the
surface will be diminishing constantly following parallel zones, having
the luminous point for the pole, until it becomes tangent to the sphere
following a great circle whose luminous point is also the pole and
which will be the line separating the shade from the light. In other
words, the light will diminish from the pole to this equator.

In the shadow it will be just the opposite; the greatest reflection
will be at the other extreme of the ray prolonged to pass through the
luminous point and the center of the sphere, the shadow will increase
in intensity from the pole of reflected light to the separating circle
of shade and light.

But if any body casts a shadow on the lighted part of the sphere,
its shadow will be much less affected by reflected light and conse-
quently will be more intense than the shade itself.

From this follow two rules for modeling: (1) A shadow cannot

252

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

be cast on a body unless this body is in the light and some other body
is casting the shadow; (2) The value of the intensity, i.e., the degree
of darkness, of the cast shadow at any point is in direct ratio to the
strength of light on that point.

The application of these rules can be illustrated on a geometric
body, for example, the capital of a Doric column and its architrave,

castshadou,^;1. V ;:g^^v-"'"r L

v*feMS$!^^

Fig. 12. Shadows on Capital of Doric Column.

Fig. 12. The shadows should be drawn out and a light shadow tint
laid over them. Now let us consider where the most intense shadows
will be. Evidently at A, where the shadow is determined by a ray
normal to the cylindrical surface of a column, and the parts A' A',
of the cast shadows which meet the surface of revolution following
its meridian of light. The clearest reflected shadows cannot be
seen in the drawing as they will be found at the back of the projection
on the meridian opposite the point A. But among the parts seen
on the drawing the most reflected light will be at the point B B, doubly
lighted by its position on plan and by the form of the moulding.

253

22 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

Between these extremes the parts C C will have intermediate values,
whether shades themselves or cast shadows. Also, observe that the
values of the light at contour C' are symmetrical with the values of
the light of contour C. There will be, therefore, a symmetry of
modeling, in relation to an axis of the most intense lighting on the
column of the luminous part and of the intensity of the shadows;
this axis will be on meridian A. As for the mouldings which are
straight in plan like D D, their general value will be analogous to
the intermediate value C C.

Passing to the lights, we see that the point most lighted will be
the point a, and finally the generatrix of a' ; and the light will become
more and more gray up to the tangent M M. But along the astragal
the light will extend in almost uniform intensity, for it will strike
more normally than on the cylinder. As for the straight parts, the
abacus, the architrave and fillets, they will receive less light than the
cylinder at a' a', and approximately the same as at C C; the sloping
part of the abacus will naturally have a more intense light. Other-
wise each one of the plain surfaces, in shadow or light, will be graded
from the upper part down, because the nearer the surface is to the
ground, the more reflected light it receives. For each detail use the
same reasoning. Thus, for the cavetto, there is a cast shadow in
the lower part, but the portion above the tangent is in shade. The
shadow is modelled by continuous grading from darkest at the lower
part to the lightest in the upper part; the talon will have cast shadows
at O and P, the portions at N being in shade, hence O and P are the
darkest parts while N is the lightest.

Another element comes into the modeling; i.e., the openings.
An opening is always darker than the simple shadows, for there is
almost no reflection that comes in the opening to lighten the shadow.
Such are the door and window openings of a facade. The parts in
shadow, which are less accessible to the reflections, will be darker
than the other parts. For instance, the openings between the dentils,
the spaces between the consoles, etc., will be darker than the face
of the dentils or consoles and may be as dark as the general shade
of the openings. The modeling should be such that the parts which
are by themselves in reality, will appear so on the drawing. It is
not necessary to exaggerate ; the modeling should remain simple.

Lacking good models, it is always easy to get good photographs

254

CORINTHIAN CAPITAL AND BASE.
Showing conventional shadows and rendering.

Qrig-inal drawing by Emanuel Brune.
Reproduced by permission of Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

of good wash drawings; for example, a large number of "Envois de
Rome ", or drawings made by students in Rome, have been photo-
graphed and published. These are models which cannot mislead one.

RENDERING IN WASH.

All studies and completed exhibition drawings in the archi-
tectural schools are tinted in India ink or water-color. This is
done to show the shadows, and to indicate the relative position of
the different planes, and is the method of representation in com-
mon use in architects' offices, especially in the presentation of com-
petition drawings.

MATERIALS.

Chinese, Japanese or India inks are used for rendering, on
account of their clear quality and rich neutral tone. The ink
comes in sticks, Fig. 13, and it is ground in a slate slab provided
with a piece of glass for a cover. See Fig. 14.

Fig. 13. India Ink.

There are various kinds of brushes. Camel's hair brushes are
the cheapest and are useful for rough work. Sable brushes, Fig.
15, are two to three times as expensive as the camel's hair ones on

Fig. 14. Ink Slab.

account of the material, but are also very much better. The sable
brushes have a spring to them not to be found in the camel's
hair brush, and they come to a finer, firmer point. Chinese and

257

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

Japanese brushes are used a good deal of late, as they are cheaper
than the sable brushes and have some spring to them. A stip-
pling brush is one with a square end, used mostly in china paint-
ing. A bristle brush is a stiff brush used in oil painting ; on
account of its stiffness it is used for taking out hard edges, as
described later on. Fig. 16 shows a nest of porcelain cabinet
saucers.

Fig. 15. Sable Brush.

Besides these materials the student should provide himself
with a large and a small soft sponge, and large blotters, which will
sop up water readily. Whatman's " cold pressed " paper is the
best paper to use for rendering in India ink.

flETHOD OF PROCEDURE.

Stretching Paper. All drawings on which washes are to be
laid should be stretched, as described in the Mechanical Drawing,
Part 1.

.Fig. 16. Nest of Saucers.

Inking the Drawing. The lines should be drawn with
ground India ink, the ink being as black as possible without being
too thick to flow. Ornament should be inked in with lighter lines
than the vertical and horizontal lines. This accents the struc-
tural lines. Very often the outline of the ornament is drawn
in a heavier line than the remainder. The width of the line

858

RENDERING OF ROMAN IONIC CAPITAI,.

Showing conventional shadows and reflected lights and shadows.
Reproduced by permission of Columbia University.

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING 25

should vary with the scale of the drawing, the larger and bolder
the drawing the wider the line.

India ink evaporates very rapidly. It should be kept covered
and changed several times a day, especially in summer. After
the drawing is inked it should be washed to remove the surplus
ink, otherwise when the tint is applied the ink will spread. This
is best done by placing it under a faucet and rubbing it very
lightly with a soft sponge. If the inking has been properly done
the lines will now have the appearance of a firm pencil line of a
soft neutral color forming a harmonious background for the tint.
The shadows should then be cast and drawn in with a hard pencil
\\\ faint lines.

Preparing the Tint. For large washes India ink should be
freshly ground in a clean saucer each time it is required. In no
case use the prepared India ink which comes in bottles, as this is
full of sediment which settles out in streaks on the drawing.
Always use the stick ink.

Rub the ink in the saucer until it is very black; then let it
stand, keeping the saucer covered. This allows the sediment,
which is so fatal to a clear wash, to settle. After it has set-
tled take the ink from the top with a brush without disturbing
the bottom. Put this ink into another saucer and dilute it
with the necessary amount of water. Never use the ink in the
saucer in which it was originally ground. In dipping the brush
into the second saucer it is well to take this ink also from the
surface and thus avoid stirring any sediment which may still
remain in the ink. In other words, the sediment which is found
in even the most carefully ground ink should never be used for
washes, otherwise streaks and spots may show in the washes.

Where only a small surface is to be rendered the tint can be
mixed on a piece of paper in the same manner in which it is mixed
in the saucer. Thus various shades can be obtained more quickly
and experiments made more easily. Skill in laying washes is
only acquired by practice. However, some instruction is neces-
sary. If, after all possible care has been taken during the draw-
ing, such as placing paper under the hand to keep the paper from
getting greasy and keeping the drawing covered to protect it from
the dust, the paper has nevertheless become soiled, it should be

261

26 ARCHITECTUKAL DRAWING

cleaned by giving it a light sponging with a very soft sponge and
perfectly clean water. Touch the surface lightly, sop on the water
liberally, and dry it off immediately with a sponge or blotter with-
out rubbing. Before washing, the paper should be cleaned by
rubbing it very lightly with a soft rubber. Especial care must be
taken not to injure the surface of the paper by rubbing too hard.

It may seem that all this care is unnecessary, but it is only
by observing this extreme care that the skilled draftsman obtains
the transparent wash and the beautiful, even, clear tints free from
all streaks, which give so much charm to an India ink rendering.

Handling the Brush. Skill in handling the brush is acquired
only by constant practice. The brush demands great lightness of
hand. The right arm should never support the body. The arm
should not rest on the drawing; only the little finger of the right
hand should come in contact with the paper. The brush should
be held somewhat like a pencil between the thumb and index
finger, and the little finger should be very free in its movements.
Touch the paper only with the point of the brush.

The brush should be well filled with the tint and care should
be taken that there is practically the same amount of tint in the
brush at all times. If this is not done, for example, if the
brush is allowed to get too dry, one part of the wash will dry
faster than the other and streaks will result.

If the brush should be too wet, the surplus moisture can be
removed by touching it to blotting paper.

If the paper is too wet the surplus -tint can be removed by
drying the brush on blotting paper and applying it to the surplus
tint which will then be rapidly absorbed by the brush. Great care
must be taken not to remove too much of the tint; otherwise it
will dry too fast and leave a streak.

Laying Washes. There are two kinds of washes; the clear
washes used in rendering shadows, window openings, etc., and the
washes in which the color is allowed to settle, the latter being used
to render the grounds surrounding a building. When laying
clear washes it is better to tip the board slightly so that the washes
may flow slowly in the direction in which they are being carried.
If the board is placed flat there is danger of the wash running
back over the part that is already dry and thus forming a streak.

DORIC DOORWAY FROM ROMAN TEMPLE AT CORI, ITALY.
An example of classic lettering, conventional shadows and rendering.

Reproduced by permission of Massachusetts Institute of Technology .

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING 27

The edge of the wash should always be kept wet, for if it begins to
dry a streak will surely follow. The tint should be carried down
evenly across the board, moving the brush rapidly from side to
side so that one side does not advance faster than the other. Carry
the tint down about an inch at a time, the amount depending upon
the size of the brush and of the surface rendered. Always go
over the previous half inch at every new advance, taking care not
to touch any part that has already dried. In this way the tint will
dry gradually, parallel to the work. Carry the sides of the tint
forward a little more slowly than the center. This will make the
tint run towards the center and help to avoid the lines or streaks
due to uneven drying.

The tint should be carried forward in such a way that the
paper will be thoroughly and evenly wet. In fact, it is a very
good plan to dampen the entire drawing with a soft sponge before
beginning to lay a wash. This dampening should be carried well
beyond the edges of the drawing so as to prevent the color from
spreading to the drier and more absorbent parts of the paper.
Always remove the pool of tint which remains at the bottom of a
wash in the manner described under " Handling the Brush." If
allowed to remain it will dry more slowly than the rest of the
drawing and a streak will show.

The drawing board should be left inclined until the wash is
dry. Never lay one wash over another before the previous one is
absolutely dry.

In laying washes which grade gradually, either from dark to
light or light to dark, grade the tint by the addition of water or
color each time that an advance is made, and be careful that these
additions are such that the change in color is made evenly.

It is very difficult to lay an evenly graded dark tint with one
wash only. It is usually better to lay a light flat wash or a light
graded wash to serve for a background on which to lay the dark
graded wash. By a flat wash is meant a wash which is the same
tone or color throughout; that is, a wash that is not graded. See
opening in Doric Doorway, Roman Temple, Cori, opposite page.

Water has to be added constantly in grading. Where there
is a series of graded washes, as in successive window openings, it
is better to have two or three saucers containing tints of different

265

28 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

strength and carry each tint for the same distance in each window so
that the gradation of color may be the same. In grading in'this way
it is necessary to carry each new wash well back over the old one so
the point where one tint ends and another begins may not show.

Sometimes gradations are obtained by laying successive flat
washes, each wash beginning a little lower than the previous one.
In this way the rendered surface will begin with one flat tint and
end with a number of tints, one on top of the other. This is called
the French method and is done by drawing very faint parallel
lines at close intervals to mark the limit of each wash. A very
light wash is then put over the whole surface, and this is followed
with successive washes, each starting from the next lower line.
This method is especially good for rendering narrow, long, hori-
zontal graded washes. See rendering of mouldings in classical cor-
nice opposite. Note particularly the application of this method on
the crown moulding, and practically all the curved mouldings.

Avoid laying too many washes in the same place, as the con-
tinuous wetting and rubbing which the paper gets from the brush
is liable to injure the surface.

If the tints are too dark, a soft sponge can be used to lighten
them or to take out hard or dark border lines ; but a large brush
about two inches wide is still better for this purpose. If it is
necessary to use a sponge, use it with a great deal of water, rub
very lightly and very patiently. The water should be kept very
clean, and the surrounding parts should be thoroughly wet before
wetting the tinted part, otherwise the tint may spread over the
other parts of the drawing. After using the sponge, dry the paper
carefully with a clean blotter. Another and better way is to place
the whole drawing under the faucet, turn on the water and use the
sponge or brush, as already described, on the parts to be lightened.

To make light places darker, use the point of a brush, apply-
ing the tint in small dots. Be careful not to begin with too dark
a tint. This process is called stippling, and it must be done very
gradually and very carefully.

Do not forget that the first quality of a wash is crispness. It
is necessary to draw with the same precision with a brush as with
a pencil. When the drawing is finished it should be allowed to
dry thoroughly before it is cut from the drawing board.

Showing Lights and Shadows on Classical Cornice,
and French Method of Rendering.

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING 29

Rendering Elevations. The object of rendering a drawing
is to explain the building. Those parts of the building nearest to
the spectator should show the greatest contrast in light and dark,
for in nature, as an object recedes from the eye, the contrast be-
comes feebler and feebler and finally vanishes in a monotone.
Every elevation shows the horizontal and vertical dimensions of a
building, or details of a building, but in a line drawing the pro-
jections of the different parts when in direct front elevation are not
shown ; and it is to indicate these projections that the shadows are
cast and the drawing is rendered. The appearance of a building
or any details of a building will be clearly shown by the shadows
in their different values of light and dark. (See plates, pages 18
and 23.) The windows and other openings of a building should
be colored dark, but not black — although this is sometimes re-
quired in competition drawings — and varying lighter tints should
be used to indicate the color of the material in the roof and walls,
the difference in the color intensity indicating the varying dis-
tances from the spectator. Note in plate on page 5, the com-
parative values of rendering in roof and shadows on roof ; also
portions of order in light, portions in shadow, and background of
column. This method of drawing is frequently carried to an elab-
orate extent by showing high lights, reflected shadows, etc., and an
elevation can thus be made to show almost as much of the character
of the proposed building as would be shown by a perspective view
or by a photograph of the completed structure. See frontispiece,
" Fragments from Roman Temple at Cori." Study the different
tone values of the various objects in the foreground and in the
background, and note the perspective effect of the background.

It is a good plan, before starting to render a drawing, to make
a small pencil sketch to determine the tone values which the vari-
ous surfaces should have, so that they will assume their proper
relative positions in the picture.

Drawings of this kind are much superior to any others as a
means of studying the probable effect of the building to be con-
structed, as they show the character of the building and, at the
same time, dimensions can be figured directly on the drawing. It
is difficult and unusual to give measurements on a perspective
drawing.

269

30 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

Rendering Sections and Plans. Sections are frequently ren-
dered in the same manner as elevations to show the interior of
buildings. The shadows are cast in such a way that they show the
dimensions and shapes of the rooms. The parts actually in section
are outlined with a somewhat heavier line and tinted with a licrlit

tint. The surfaces are modeled just as they are in the elevations.
See opposite page.

Plans are rendered to show the character of the different
rooms by tinting the mosaic, furniture, surrounding grounds, trees,
walks, etc. The shadows of walls, statuary, columns and furniture
are often cast, so. that the completed rendered plan is an architec-
tural composition which tells more than any other drawing the
character of the finished building.

The interior of the building and all covered porticoes are left
much lighter than the surrounding grounds because the building
is the most important portion of a drawing and should, therefore,
receive the first attention of the spectator. The sharp contrast of
the black and white of the plan to the surroundings brings about
the desired effect. The mosaic, furniture, etc., should be put in in
very light tints in order to avoid giving the plan a spotty look.
The walls in the plan should be tinted dark or blacked in so that
they will stand out clearly. See Fig. 17.

Graded Tints. One rule in laying all tints should be strictly
followed : Grade every wash. A careful study of the actual
shadows on buildings will show that each shadow varies slightly in
degree of darkness ; that is, shows a gradation. The lower parts
of window openings are, as a rule, lighter than the upper parts.
Therefore, the washes or tints should grade from dark at the top
of the door or window openings to light at the bottom. Further-
more, it will be found that the reflection from the ground lights up
shadows cast on the building, so that shadows which are dark at the
top become almost as light as the rest of the building at its base.

Windows and doors are voids in the facade of a building, and
they have a greater value in the composition of a design than
shadows or ornaments in general. This character should be care-
fully shown in the rendering ; and to that end the grading should
never show such violent contrasts as to distract the eye from the
design as a whole, and thus destroy the unity of the design and

270

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

the true mass of the openings. Many good designs are greatly
injured in the rendering by the violent contrast in the grading of
the openings from dark to light.

In the shadow itself it will be found that detail is accented or

Fig. 17. Conventional Method of Rendering Plan.

273

32 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

brought out by reflected shadows. These shadows are in a direc-
tion opposite to the shadows cast by the sun. If the light is
assumed to come in the conventional way, namely at an angle of
forty-five degrees from the upper front left corner to the lower
back right corner, the reflected light may be assumed to be at an
angle of forty-five degrees from the lower right front corner to the
upper left rear corner, and the reflected shadows will accordingly be
cast in this direction. See detail of Greek Doric Order, page 5.

If these are worked up in their correct relation to one another
the character of the details will be well expressed.

Distinction Between Different Planes. The different planes
of a building \vhich project one in front of the other are distin-
guished from each other in the following manner:

The parts toward the front have a warm color, the portions
receiving direct light have a tone over them indicating the mate-
rial, the shadows are strong and bold, and the reflected shadows
are more or less pronounced. The parts toward the rear, on the
other hand, have no such strong contrasts of light and dark. The
light parts are often left very light and the shadows put in even
tones. The further the" object is from the spectator the less pro-
nounced will be the reflected lights and shadows. Note the grad-
ing on the steps in plate, page 18, and study the frontispiece as
an illustration of this point.

In rendering, a difference should be made for different mate-
rials. Note the difference between the stone and the metal work
on opposite page.

A FEW WATER COLOR HINTS FOR DRAFTSMEN.

Many draftsmen who are strong in drawing, are very weak in
color work. The reason for this is, in most cases, that the colors
are not fresh, that the brush is too dry, and that the color values are
not correct, fresh crisp color is most important. To get this
it is necessary to start with a clean color box, clean brushes, and
clean paints. The colors should be moist and not dry and hard.

Tube and Pan Colors. After having acquired some facility
in the use of colors, tube colors are the best to use, although
they are somewhat more wasteful than pan colors. They are less
likely to harden and dry up and are not more expensive. The

274

Showing Difference in Rendering Stone and Metal.

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

colors in the tubes can be squeezed out on the palette as needed,
and if this is done fresh bright effects are obtained. For the be-

Fig. 18. Box for Pan Colors.

ginner, however, pan colors are recommeded, as they are more
easy to handle. Fig. 18 shows a japanned tin box for pan colors,
Fig. 19 shows a pan color, and Fig. 20 a tube color.

LIST OF COLORS: The following list of colors will make a
very good palette:

Cadmium Orange Vermilion Cobalt Blue Emerald Green

Indian Yellow Carmine New Blue Hooker^s Green

Lemon Yellow Light Red Prussian Blue

Gallstone Burnt Sienna Paine' s Gray Chinese White

Yellow Ochre Warm Sepia

The colors printed in italics are clear colors which will give
clear even washes. The others will settle out, the color settling

Fig. 19. Pan Color.

Fig. 20. Tube Color.

into the pores of the paper producing many small spots. This
effect is often desirable, giving a texture which cannot be obtained
with the clear colors

277

34 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

For use in the offices, India ink, Chinese white, gallstone,
carmine and indigo will be found very convenient. The latter
three are convenient forms of the three primary colors to use with
India ink in rendering. Many draftsmen use these alone.

flanipulation. The washed-out look of many of the color
sketches seen in architectural exhibitions is very noticeable. The
sketches lack strength and crispness.

Color properly applied should be put on boldly in broad
simple washes without fear of too much color. Remember that
colors when dry are much lighter than \dien in a moist state. Use
plenty of clear water in the brush. Do not go over one wash with
another before the first is entirely dry. This is particularly true
where a deeper tone is to be put over a lighter one. In broad sky
washes where there is a great deal of paper to be covered, dampen
the surface well first with a small sponge, then with a large brush
and bold yet light quick strokes put in the sky.

Brushes and Paper. A small brush with a good point is
necessary for " drawing in " and for detail. A bristle brush is very
useful to remove color and to soften hard lines. Chinese brushes
are very good, as they hold a great deal of color and at the same
time have a good point.

If an edge shows a hard line, this can be softened by dipping
the bristle brush into clean water and rubbing the point lightly
over the edge that is too hard, sopping up the water at frequent
intervals with a clean blotter. It is important that plenty of clean
water should be used and that the water be taken up with a blotter
very often.

When a "high light" is lost, and a bristle brush does not
take out enough color, the "high light" may be put in with
Chinese white, mixing it with a little of the color of the material.
Look at your subject broadly and do not try to put in too
many details. Whatman's hot pressed 70- or 90-lb. paper is good
to use. The hot pressed paper, which has a smooth surface, take?
the color better than the rough surfaced or cold pressed paper, but
the cold pressed has more texture and gives better atmospheric
effects.

Combination of Color. For the inexperienced a few hints as
to what combinations of color to use may be helpful. It must

278

A beautiful example of rendering in wash, showing conventional method of represent!!

plan and surrounding grounds. This is usually done in strong contrasting colors.

The black rectangles indicate statuary; the crossed lines arbors. Note

how the shadows of the building, terraces, statuary, etc., help to

£-ve interest to the drawing

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

always be remembered that the colors must be clean to get fresh
bright effects.

A simple blue sky: Prussian Blue, Antwerp Blue or Cobalt Blue.
Clouds: Light Red. For the distance use lighter tones with the

addition of a little Emerald Green or Carmine.
Dark part of clouds: Light Red and New Blue.
Roads and pathways in sunlight: Yellow Ochre and Light Red with

a little New Blue to gray it.
Cast shadows: Cobalt and Light Red or Carmine with a little green

added.
Grass in sunlight: Lemon Yellow and Emerald or Hooker's Green;

or Indian Yellow and Emerald Green.

Grass in shadow: Prussian Blue and Indian Red; or Prussian
Blue and Burnt Sienna. Aurora Yellow and Prussian Blue
gives a green color similar to Emerald.
Eor gray roofs in sunlight: Light Red and New Blue.

Primary, Secondary and Complementary Colors. The com-
bination of colors maybe learned by means of the diagram, Eig. 21,
which will assist the student greatly in his water color work. The
three primary colors are yellow, red and blue. The combination

of any two of these will give a sec-
ondary color — orange, purple or
green. Two colors are called com-
plementary colors if the one is com-
posed of two of the primary colors
and the other one is the third pri-
mary color. Thus, green, composed
of the primary colors blue and yel-
low, has as complementary color the
third primary color ; i.e., red. Con-
sulting the diagram it will be found
that opposite colors are complemen-
tary colors; i.e., blue and orange,
red and green, yellow and purple. If two complementary colors are
put alongside of one another, each color will look brighter along-
side the other than if placed by itself; this is due to the law of
contrasts. Thus, the same green if placed alongside red, will look
greener than when by itself, and the same holds good for the

^'purple

Fig. 21. Diagram of Colors.

281

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

red. If complementary colors are mixed together you get a softer
color, a gray and sometimes muddy effect. If blue, red and yel-
low are mixed together in the right proportion a soft gray is
obtained

Water Color Rendering. Where colors are used for architec-
tural drawings they should be mixed fresh, if clear tints are wanted,
but in places where it is desired to have certain effects obtained by
allowing color to settle, tints that have stood some time may be
used. Especially is this true for plans, where the color is allowed
to settle in putting in grass, trees, statues, etc. When it is desired
to let the color settle it is better to leave the board flat and carry
the color along with the brush, leaving it until it is dry. Some
draftsmen keep the board level for all their work.

Sketch elevations in pencil may be inked in or may be ren-
dered directly in water color, the shadows being cast and various
colored tints laid on to show the different materials, shadows, win-
dow openings, etc.

Sketches rendered in sepia only are very effective, putting in
the lines with the pen, and rendering with light sepia washes.
Elevations are usually most effective when the shadows are put in
by washes that grade quickly from dark to light, brilliancy is thus
obtained. It is astonishing what effects can be obtained with very
faint washes. This applies especially to small scale drawings.
The larger the scale of the building or detail, the stronger should
be the coloring and values of light and dark.

When sections are colored the parts actually in section are
outlined with a strong red line and tinted a very light pink. The
colors on the wall are merely suggested.

On the plans the mosaic, furniture, etc., is often shown in a
light pink. Where a statue has a prominent place it is put in in
strong vermilion. Attention is called here to the fact that letter-
ing on a plan counts as mosaic, and should be done in such a way
that it will help the effect sought for, a very important point to
remember in competition drawings.

The important thing to remember in rendering is to get the
correct relative value of lights and darks. To do this it is neces-
sary to have clearly in mind what the important features to be
brought out are and what is the most direct way of accomplishing

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING 37

this; in other words, the aim should be to make as harmonious a
composition as taste, talent and thought can produce.

Water Color Sketching. Nothing is more useful to an archi-
tectural draftsman than out-of-door sketching in colors. A water
color block should be his constant companion on his Saturday half
holidays, and, if possible, he should join some sketching class.

The sketches in water color may be taken from natural scenery,
but the student should also make studies and color sketches from
color decorations of exterior and interior of buildings.

Do not indicate too much in water color sketching, search for
the big masses in shape and color values and put them in direct
and simple.

A draftsman who gives his leisure time to water color sketch-
ing in summer, and to evening classes in drawing from the antique
and from life in winter, will have as good a training as could be
wished for in this part of his architectural career.

PRELIMINARY STUDIES IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN.

Methods of Study. Different designers work up their draw-
ings in individual ways. Good results are, as a rule, accomplished
by getting ideas on paper, comparing and working up the best, and
combining different features from the different sketches. Some men
of the highest ability prefer to work in this way. Others work up
the ideas in their minds before drawing them on paper, often not
changing a line once it is put on paper. The latter proceeding is
dangerous, as it tends to make the designer satisfied with the first
idea that comes to his mind, and makes him unwilling to search for
other ideas; he is liable to become narrow and careless.

Putting Ideas on Paper. The problem which the architect
has to work out is to make the building of a form and of dimensions
best suited to the demands of the client, so that all the parts are in
good proportion and in harmony with each other. Much detail in
former times was studied on the building in course of construction,
but now everything has to be prepared beforehand, and the smallest
details foreseen before the building is commenced. The preliminary
sketches are generally made on a small scale, one-eighth inch, one-
sixteenth inch, or one-thirty-second inch to the foot, worked up from
rough thumb-nail sketches often not drawn to scale. Some design-

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

ers will work up their schemes upon the back of an envelope, and
these can be brought into scale in the same proportion in which they
are sketched out by means of the proportional dividers.

Architectural work is half way between mechanical drawing
and so-called freehand drawing, permitting more freehand work
than an engineer would consider proper, and demanding more line
drawing than an artist would think of employing.

The most successful architectural design generally comes from
numerous freehand sketches, as well as accurate studies, frequent
erasing and changing on the original drawing, placing studies side
by side and comparing them, until a satisfactory solution is found.
It is only by continued practice that freedom of expression is obtained,
and without this faculty, the best ideas are useless. The well-
equipped architect carries a soft pencil, and sketches as rapidly as
possible every new impression on paper.

Use of Tracing Paper. When the plan has been well studied, a
sketch of the elevation and section should be made as a check on the
"scale" of the plan. Tracing paper should be constantly used, both
in making rough studies over the drawing and in making accurate
line-drawings for comparison of the different schemes. These draw-
ings on tracing paper as studies in proportion, should be as accurate
as the finished drawing, though, of course, no care is necessary in giv-
ing them a finished appearance, and the straight lines may run across
intersections, and erasures and changes may be made freely.

METHOD OF STARTING A PROBLEM AT THE ECOLE DES
BEAUX ARTS, PARI5.

At the School of Fine Arts, in Paris, when a problem is given
to the students, they are obliged to work one day by themselves
getting out the scheme of the building. Each student then takes
a tracing of his " sketch," leaving the original at the school. In his
own "atelier" or drafting room, he works up the "sketch" with the
criticism of his own professor and fellow students. At the end of
four or six weeks the finished drawings are sent to the school to be
exhibited and prizes or mentions awarded by the jury selected by
the school. The preliminary work of the "sketch" is very similar
to actual practice, because an architect is often obliged, in a very
short time, to get out preliminary sketches for a client, and these

284

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

having been accepted, it is his duty to carry them out with as little
change as possible, excepting to -perfect the proportions and details-
Sketch Plans. The plans, even in the studies, should have
the walls colored in with any appropriate color, such as dark gray,
as otherwise it is very difficult to see on paper the proportion of the
spaces, the ease of circulation, and the general character of the whole
in mass and in detail.

Sketch Elevations. After the plans have been thoroughly
studied the elevations may be worked up, studying the architectural
style and general character of the exterior in relation to the plan.
These drawings should be studied over and over again on tracing
paper, casting the shadows so that the projection of cornices and
sizes of window openings may be seen; at this time also details of a
larger scale may be studied in sketch form.

On the elevations or in perspective, the jointing of the stone,
brick or terra cotta, may be drawn and this will give a surface texture
that may save further rendering.

Perspective Studies. For all smaller buildings, such as
cottages, farm buildings and small public buildings, requiring a
picturesque treatment, such as a broken roof line, it is better, instead
of spending much time on elevations with the shadows cast, to draw
almost at the start, a perspective from the most important point of
view, and make rapid sketch perspectives from several different
points of view.

Perspective Drawing. A perspective should be made of
every building designed, primarily in order that the designer may see
how planes at right angles — for instance, the side and front eleva-
tions— come together, and also how roof lines will look from the
customary point of sight. This is especially necessary in buildings
of a picturesque character. A perspective is also generally demanded
for exhibition purposes, so that clients may gain a better idea of the
appearance of the proposed building.

Perspective sketches to explain certain points in the drawings
are of great value. Very difficult detail drawings may have sketched
on them the details in perspective from different points of view.
These sketches will explain more clearly than many careful drawings
how certain parts come together. Such drawings are very welcome
in the workshop and on the building in course of construction.

40 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

EXHIBITION DRAWINGS.

Exhibition or show drawings consist of plans, elevations, sec-
tions, and perspectives; the drawings are in line, pencil, pen and ink,
or color; and all are carefully drawn, and mounted, to show the
scheme for the proposed building. These may be the preliminary
sketches of an architect regularly employed, or they may be com-
petition drawings.

The plan is blacked-in, the furniture delicately tinted, and the
surroundings rendered in monotone or color. On the elevations
the windows are colored in with graded washes. Every shadow is
cast and tinted in; if in color, the different materials are indicated
by different colors. In the sections shadows are cast on the section
and the color schemes of the various apartments are suggested.

The general idea of the proposed building is best presented to
the public by a perspective view, rendered in pencil, pen and ink or
color. The perspective is generally laid out in the architect's office
and then it is sent to a professional artist for completion.

SKETCHING.

We have considered drawings made on a drawing board with
T-square and triangles. There is another way of drawing, that is,
by sketching.

The sketch is the most rapid means of progressing in the art of
designing. In sketching an object one examines it more closely than
one otherwise would. Not only is it necessary to understand a com-
position, to distinguish its separate parts, but it is necessary to fix
the relation of these parts and to study carefully the proportions.
The eye alone is the real instrument for measurement and guide for
proportion, and the sketch is the means for training the eye. Prac-
tice alone will give facility in sketching.

Do not make sketches primarily in order to collect material, but
make them in order to learn how to see. Sketch books may be kept
as souvenirs, but the profit from them will be more in the instruc-
tion gained while making the sketch than in the sketches themselves.
Through abundant sketching a freedom in the expression of ideas
is also gained.

The point to keep in view in sketching is to show the character
of the subject attempted. The exact dimensions one can get only with

286

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

the tape-line, but the most carefully measured drawings often fail to
show much character. A photograph is liable to represent a subject
other than as the eye and hand see it. But if the effect of the sub-
ject, the impression of the beholder, can be reproduced in the sketch,

Fig. 22. Cross-Section Paper.

something has been obtained which the tape and the camera cannot,
hope to accomplish.

Materials for Sketching, At first it is a good idea to use cross-
section paper, paper ruled in squares of \ in. or less, which makes
it easier to draw at right angles; but from the moment that the
draftsman is able to get along without these lines he should employ
only blank paper. A small sketch book should be carried in the
pocket. For small pencil sketches a smooth paper (metallic paper)

287

42 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

gives crisp effects, but much rubbing cannot be done. A gray paper
gives good effects with pencil or color used as a medium, chalk or
Chinese white giving the high lights.

The sketches can be made in pencil, charcoal, ink, crayon, or
in colors; the medium of expression is of little importance, as,
after having learned to see an object rightly, the drawing can be made,
as Ruskin says, "with a stick of wood charred at the end." A sketch
should be light and cleai. Shadows may be cast, but merely to
express the projections, and should be only lightly shaded in.

Subjects to Sketch. In almost every city there are small
classes in freehand and charcoal drawing which the architectural
student should, if possible, attend; and in connection with every
art museum there are generally day and evening classes. But
great progress may be made by individual work in drawing interest-
ing objects. Do not commence with making a sketch of a whole
building. Sketch individual features, like a doorway, some orna-
ment, etc. Sketches of buildings or motives of buildings should be
made in direct projection as well as in perspective. The sketches
in perspective will help to explain the geometrical sketches and to
teach the student to think in three dimensions.

A great deal can be learned by copying photographs of good
work, but the greatest benefit is derived by drawing from nature.
By the latter the student learns almost unconsciously the laws of per-
spective, form, and proportion, and above all learns to think "in the
solid." It leads to the appreciation of the fact that architectural
drawing is the expression of solids, and in order that these solids
shall be successfully shown, the one that draws them has to see them
in his mind's eye as they actually are going to appear when built.

He should be very careful in the selection of his models to draw
from, and choose only such that are beautiful. Too often the stu-
dent is told to draw no matter what, under the pretext that it is always
an exercise. Without doubt it is difficult to draw any model at first
exactly, but what does it amount to if he occupies his time with copy-
ing those things which do not stimulate and develop his sense of
beauty. There is no better practice than to draw a flower, a leaf;
and if he has access to museums, etc., he should draw from the
antique models, sculpture, and ornamental subjects. By drawing

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

the latter he can learn besides how in olden times natural objects
were conventionalized for use in decoration.

Memory sketches are excellent practice. Go to see a model,
study it as carefully as possible; then go home and make a sketch of
it. The student may be sure that his memory will betray him, and
he should go back to the subject and study it again and again — twice
or three times if necessary — after which he will finally arrive at a
reasonably accurate sketch.

MEASURED WORK.

There are two occasions for making measurements of old build-
ings; one, when it is proposed to make alterations; the other, for the
sake of study, making drawings of portions either for immediate
study or future reference.

Materials. It is a good plan if possible to take a small draw-
ing board, T-square, and triangles to the building. Cross-section
paper ruled one-eighth inch between light lines and one inch between
heavy lines is very convenient. See illustration, Fig. 22, showing
use of cross-section paper. Drawings may be laid out directly to
scale on this paper, at one-eighth, one-quarter, or one-sixteenth inch
to the foot, or details drawn at three-quarters inch to the foot, or
full size.

Measuring Tapes. The dimensions should be taken with a
tape, and for architectural work a "metallic" tape or cloth reinforced
with fine wires and having clear figures, is very satisfactory, though
it will be advisable to use a steel tape for very accurate work.

Datum Lines. As a general rule, it is best in frame buildings
to take the horizontal measurements on the sill line, making a small
section to show the relation of the sill to the walls. In brick and
stone buildings they should be taken on the outside wall face or ashlar
line. For heights, the finished floor levels should be taken as starting
points, the main first floor of the building being the general datum.
If there are many projections in plan it will be well to draw a straight
base line and measure it from this line. If old buildings are out of
level it will be necessary to use a straight edge or draw a level line
on the wall and measure up and down from this level.

Hand Level. The hand level will be found very convenient
for obtaining approximately the grades about the building. This

289

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

is a small instrument used by railroad engineers in working out the
elevations on each side of the track. The level can be also obtained
by looking toward the horizon, pulling down the hat brim until the
point coincides with it, turning on the heel carry the horizon level
to the direction desired. This will give a point at the level with the
eye.

Elevation Measurements. Total distances should be taken,
and interior heights from floor to floor (with thickness of floors)
should be run from basement floor to top of roof, and if possible a line
should be dropped down the outside of the building to check this.
It is well to mark size of glass, and give outside dimensions of sashes,

Fig. 23. Twelve-inch Single Jointed Rule and Level.

taking dimensions to centers of windows or edges of stone or brick
openings. Measurements are given by some architects from frame
to glass openings. Sketches or details should be made of typical
windows, and variations from the type. Roof pitches may be obtained
by a level and measuring the rise per foot, or outside dimensions and
total rise may be taken. A convenient instrument for doing this
work is a twelve-inch single-jointed rule and level, shown in Fig. 23.
Arches. In measuring arches, the height A, Fig. 24, from the
ground to the spring of the arch should be given, the total height B,
and the width C. The curve is obtained by giving the length of the
radii or by laying a straight edge, D F, against the curve and measur-

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING 45

ing the distance D E, which wiU locate one point in the curve. Other
points may be taken, by offsets from the straight edge.

Projections. Projections are obtained by measuring in from
a plumb line. The diameter of columns may be ascertained by means
of two parallel straight edges or by dividing the
circumference by 3.1416.

Inaccessible Portions. In places where it
is impossible to reach the point it is desired to
measure there are several ways of obtaining the
dimensions with considerable accuracy. A photo-
graph should always be ^taken of the building
measured, and a proportional scale can be made
from the known dimensions, which can be used
on the photograph for determining unknown

Pig. 24. Measurement .

of Arches. dimensions.

Approximations. In brick, stone, clapboarded or shingled
buildings the different courses may be counted and tlje totals figured
from those that can be measured. Where rapid memorandum
sketches are made distances may be easily obtained by pacing, some
men taking nearly a three-foot pace, others walking easily five feet
in two steps. In this' case every other step is counted as five feet.
The total heights may be obtained by measuring up as high as can
be reached, then standing at a distance, holding a pencil at this
known height, measuring the distance by the eye to the top of the
building. Or, a man's height can be taken to gauge the approxi-
mate height. The foot rule may be held up at such a distance from
the eye that every quarter inch corresponds to a foot on the building,
and the dimensions can be read off in this way.

Rubbings. Rubbings may be taken of tablets, lettering and
flat ornaments by laying paper on the ornament and rubbing over it
with a shoemakers' heel ball. The pattern cut in will be left white
and the rest of the s*. rface will be blackened by the heel ball.

291

PLATE A

REVIEW QUESTIONS

ON THE SUBJECT OF

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING.

Materials required : H H, F, and B B pencils.

Erasers: A large soft rubber, and a firm one; also an ink eraser
and erasing shield.

Set of instruments, including compasses, bow instruments, dividers,
ruling pen.

Architect's scale. 2 drawing boards, 28 x 42 and 23 x 32 inches.
T-square, and one 45° and one 3(P-60° triangle. Nest of tinting saucers,
sponge, blotters, India ink, half-cake of carmine, half-tube of Prussian
blue, Whatman's hot-pressed paper, Imperial size. Manila paper. Cross-
section paper. Tracing paper.

1. Give the dimensions of "Double Elephant" paper; of
"Imperial" paper.

2. What simple method is adopted by architects to correct a
T-square which does not fit a drawing exactly ?

3. What expedient is adopted by architects to identify the
T-square with which a drawing is made and why is this necessary?

4. Describe the difference between "hot pressed" and "cold
pressed" paper and the purposes for which each is best adapted.

5. Describe "tinted papers, and scratch papers" and their use.

6. How is the flow of ink on tracing cloth improved ? Which
side of the cloth is used ? Why ?

7. What is the advantage of tracing paper? of tracing cloth?

8. What is the customary scale for drawings in American
offices? in English offices?

9. Explain fully the special advantages of the 3-inch, 1-inch and
f-inch scales.

10. What is a plan; an elevation; a section?

11. Lay out the plan and section of a staircase on a scale of
J-inch equals 1 foot, to the following dimensions: Width 5 feet,

50 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

height from finished floor 11 feet 11 inches. Use the short method
explained in Fig. 3. (Leave all construction lines.)

12. How is the brilliancy and snap of drawings increased ?

13. How are different planes and joint lines indicated in an
elevation.

RENDERING IN WASH.

General Remarks. Whatman's cold pressed paper is the
best for these examination plates. The Imperial size is 22 in. X
30 in., and one of these sheets will cut into two sheets 15 in. X 22
in., which will be large enough for all of the examination plates.
The lines are to be inked with India ink, after which the drawing
is to be washed before rendering. The lines must be drawn very
neatly and carefully.

Before starting to render, small pencil sketches should be
made to study the relations of the lights and shadows and to deter-
mine their values. The student will find that with the aid of such
pencil sketches, he can render with greater accuracy, and will
obtain quicker and better results.

The shadows in plates C to E are indicated by dotted lines.
In the finished drawings, these should be shown \nfine light full
pencil lines.

In fastening the paper to the board, care must be taken not
to allow the paste to extend more than half an inch back from the
edge of the paper.

Be sure to write your name and address legibly on the back
of each drawing.

PLATE I.

This plate is to be three times the size of plate A and the
different rectangles are to be rendered as follows:

Rectangle A, with a light even wash similar in tone to " High

Light" in the value scale:

Rectangle B, with a medium even wash similar to " Middle":
Rectangle C, with a very dark even wash similar in tone to "Dark":
Rectangle D has various compartments which are to be rendered
with an even wash having the same tone in each compartment
similar to " Low Light":

Rectangle E, with a medium even wash similar to - Middle^, leav-
ing the four enclosed spaces " White":

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

Rectangle F, with alternating dark and
medium stripes, the first, third, fifth
and seventh stripe to be dark, similar
to " High Dark", the others light sim-
ilar to "Low Light":

Rectangle G has various strips which are
to be graded evenly, the top strip be-
ing the darkest, the next one a little
lighter and so on until the last strip
is very light in tone. The successive
values of the strips should be " Dark",
"High Dark", "Middle", "Low
Light", "Light" and "High Light":

Rectangle H, with a graded wash varying
from dark at the top to light at the
bottom. Care should be taken to have
the wash evenly graded. The dark
should be similar in value to " High
Dark" and the light similar to " Low
Light":

Rectangle I, with a graded wash varying
from light at the top to dark at the
bottom. In rendering this rectangle
the board, should not be turned around
and the wash put on by grading from
light to dark, but the board should be
left in the same position and the wash
graded by the admixture of color in-
stead of water. The light should be
similar to " Light" and the dark sim-
ilar to "Middle":

Rectangle J, with a graded wash varying
from dark to light, the spaces between
the two halves of the rectangle being
left "White". The dark is similar
to " Middle", and the light similar to
"Light"..

High
Light

Light L

Low
Light

Middle M

SS HD

Dark D

295

ft)

PLATE B

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING 53

The Value Scale is given merely to show the relative degrees of dark-
ness, not to show the actual appearance of the wash. The wash itself must
be perfectly clear and transparent.

Note. The various values should not be made in one wash. Better
effects are obtained by superimposing several light washes and thus obtain-
ing a dark wash, than by putting on a dark wash in one operation.

PLATE II.

This plate is to be drawn three times the size of plate B. The
section of the mouldings is to be drawn first, then lines drawn at
an angle of 45° from the different corners of the mouldings. The
vertical surfaces are to be rendered darker than the horizontal ones
as shown in the top moulding in the first column. The mould-
ings in the second and fourth columns are to be rendered by the
French method, drawing^;^ light parallel pencil lines and render-
ing by successive washes, as shown in the rendered illustrations.
The mouldings in the third and fifth columns are to be rendered
by grading directly, by the addition of water if the tone changes
from dark to light or by the addition of tint if the tone changes
from .light to dark. The letters and the border lines are to be
rendered as indicated. A margin of half an inch of white paper
is to be left outside of the border lines.

PLATE III.

Rendering of Doric Order. This plate is to be three times
the size of plate C. The order is the same size as the order on plate
VII, in the Roman Orders. For rendering the order, the plate
on page 5, "Detail of Greek Doric Order", will serve as a guide.
The background A should be graded from dark at the top to light
at the bottom similar to the wash between the column and pilaster
in the plate mentioned above. The mouldings may be put in by
the French method as shown on page 28. The background B should
be a light evenly graded wash similar to the upper part of the
background in the frontispiece, " Fragments from Roman Temple",
having the wash somewhat darker at the top and grading it out to
very light at the bottom. No trees, etc., are to be shown in the
background. The steps will have a very light wash, that on step
C being hardly noticeable, the step D a slightly more pronounced
wash, and the step E a little darker still, but very light in tone.
Study the value scale to determine these gradations. The tablet
with letters may be rendered similar to the tablet at the bottom of

297

LLIUUUUUUUUUUUUUU

PLATE C

PLATE D

56 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

the plate mentioned before. Reflected • shadows are to be put in
and care should be taken to show the reflected lights in the shade.

PLATE IV.

This plate is to be drawn double the size of plate D. A mar-
gin one and one-half inches is to be left as a white border outside
the border line. The " Doric Doorway from Roman Temple at
Cori", page 27, will serve as a guide for rendering this plate.
The window opening is to be rendered with an even dark wash,
and the wall surface is to have a light tone. The shadows are
indicated by a faint wash and are to be modeled and graded in
such a way that they all have proper relative values.

PLATE V.

This plate is to be drawn double the size of plate E, and a
margin of an inch and a half of white is to be left outside of the
border line. Plate XXXIII, in the Roman Orders, can be used as a
guide, the Temple drawn there being of the same size required for
this problem. If the flutes on the columns are put in, they should
be drawn with watered ink so that they are not too pronounced.
The shadows and the parts in shade are shown by a faint flat wash
outlined by dotted lines. All the lights and shadows are to be
carefully modeled in their proper relations to one another. The
wall Aj and A2 is on a line with the rear wall of the Temple;
hence the portion of the wall, A2, on the right of the Temple will
be in shade, and the portion, A,, on the left will have a light tone
over it to show that it is in the background. For the rendering
of the spaces between the columns, and the doorway, the plate
" Detail from Temple of JVIars Yengeur", page 18, will be help-
ful as well as for the rendering of the steps. The shadows on the
steps will be similar in grading to the shadow of the altar on the.
steps. The bronze candelabra is to be rendered dark, care being
taken to leave high lights of " White" on the round surfaces
receiving the most direct light. For suggestions for rendering
the bronze plate, page 32. In rendering background, the front-
ispiece, "Fragments from Roman Temple at Cori", will prove
helpful.

14. Draw the plan shown in Fig. 6 at double the present size.

800

PLATE E

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

Lay it out by axes in the manner described. Study carefully so you
may understand why axes are used.

15. Draw the capital and entablature shown in Fig. 9 at double
size in accordance with the directions.

16. Draw the balluster shown in Fig. 10 at double the size by
the method of "limiting lines."

17. What is meant by modelling a drawing; by values?

18. What is the French method of laying washes?

19. What colors will make a good palette? What are the
primary colors? What are the secondary colors? Wliat are com-
plementary colors ? Show the relations of these colors by a diagram.

20. Draw on cross-section paper in freehand the plan of the
first floor of your house as indicated in Fig 22, from actual measure-
ments, considering each space equal to 1 foot.

EPIDAVROS

GREEteDORIGANI

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

PART II

PRACTICAL PROBLEMS IN DESIGN

NOTES ON THEORY OF DESIGN

Composition. It is impossible to formulate laws of composition
which, even if faithfully observed, will absolutely insure satisfactory
results. That is to say, any work of art — such as a picture, a statue,
or a building — may comply with all the general laws of composition
and still 'not be really artistic.

A great deal depends on the feeling of the designer. A carpenter
may make a cornice for the exterior of a house, or a mantel-piece for
the interior, without having been taught any of the formal laws of
composition; and nevertheless, by careful study and through the de-
sire to build something pleasing, may produce something much more
artistic than the most carefully wrought effort of a designer who knows
all these so-called laws but lacks all artistic feeling.

Workmen in the various trades can assist the architect materially
in producing an artistic result. One of the most desirable character-
istics in a workman is that he shall execute the wishes of the owner as
expressed in the. architect's drawings, and carry them out as artistically
as possible in every detail. There is a certain character in every piece
of work which every workman should try to understand and carry out
in a simple, frank, decisive, and straightforward way. Every work-
man feels the value of truthfulness in work, and objects to sham in
doing good work.

Turner, the great English painter, was a man who did everything
that he had to do, no matter how trivial, well. John Ruskin says of
him, in his lectures on architecture and painting:

"He took a poor price that he might live; but he made noble drawings
that he might learn. He never let a drawing leave his hands without having
made a step in advance and having done better in it than he had ever done
before."

305

48 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

Composition is the art of bringing together various interesting
details, so that the whole result will be harmonious and pleasing.

The important features should be on axes, or grouped symmetri-
cally on either side of an imaginary center line. For instance, in a
room, if the fire place is to be one of the features, it should be cen-
tered [on one of the axes of the room. The remaining features
should be arranged with relation to the axes or center lines of the
room so that as a mass they will balance each other.

In a good composition some single feature should dominate —
for example, in a building, the main gable, or a towrer, or a long, simple
roof line; or in a room, the fireplace or a painting; etc. In decorating
a house, the general effect should be pleasing, and should not be too
much broken up by spotted details. There must not be too many
equally interesting points; otherwise the result is either monotony or
competition; one point must dominate. There must not, for example,
be other gables competing with the main gable by being too near the
size of the main gable. For the same reason it is better to group
windows and other features in odd numbers and accent the central one.

It is well to think of the location of the different interesting points.
In a cottage — to take an example — the gable that is seen from the best
point of view should be near the center of the perspective; or, again, a
tower should not be isolated or appear so much at one side from the
best point of view that it will look as if disconnected from the house.

The smaller parts of the composition should have a proper relation
to the main motive. The dormers, for instance, in a cottage, should
be in the same style as the main gable, or in harmony with the style.

Nevertheless, all these different parts must be used so that there
will be some contrast, in order to give life and interest to the compo-
sition. No detail from a different style, however, should be brought
in without the designer being sure that the harmony of the composition
is not thereby disturbed. To learn how to compose, it is not sufficient
to study books and receive instruction in the school or in the drafting
room; the student must supplement this with the study of nature and
of objects and buildings themselves.

Scale. The word "scale" has been used to designate a measure
of distance — for example, a scale of one-quarter of an inch to a foot.

"Scale" is used also in another sense— that is, to designate the
appearance of a building or any artistic composition, which, without

306

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

considering the actual dimensions, gives us an idea of the size. For
example, in the two sketches A and B (Fig. 25) the two vases have the
same proportion; but one is a huge decorative vase standing at the
side of a fireplace, while the other is a small vase standing on a table.

Fig. 25.

It requires the books and other details of well known dimensions to
suggest the small scale of the one, and the mantel-piece to suggest the
scale of the other. The same principle is seen in doors and windows,
in the effect of steps in front of a building, in balustrades, and in all
details with which we are familiar in our daily life.

A drawing is "large in scale" when it appears to be drawn at a
larger scale than has been really used; for example, a drawing of a
building might look as if it were laid out at quarter-inch scale when it
was really laid out at one-eighth-inch scale. If such a building were
erected, it would be much larger than the drawing would indicate.
On the other hand, if it is "small in scale," the details are too small
and the building will appear as if it were built for dwarfs.

The materials used in construction affect the scale of a building —
such as sizes of brick, stone, clapboards, etc. Arches span larger
spaces than lintels; iron construction needs fewer supports than stone
construction. The detail should be somewhat larger in scale in the
upper part of a building, where it is seen from the ground, from what
it is in the lower portion near the observer. Interior detail should be
finer and smaller than exterior detail.

Statuary, when called "life-size," is actually made about one-
quarter of the height larger than life size. The reason for this is that
objects in the open air, or in large spaces, look smaller than they

307

50 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

actually are. The size also depends largely on the height from the
ground.

If a building does not appear to be in good scale — that is, if the
drawing does not suggest the actual size of the building (which may
be tested by sketching in a figure of a man, and measuring to see if the
house is in scale or not), the detail should be studied to see that it is
not too large or too small; other details may be added, such as steps
or balustrades; or, if the design is an interior, the walls may be deco-
rated with natural objects in the right scale. Anything that will
suggest the height of the human figure may be used, or stone joints
and other suggestions of material may be made more evident.

Ornament. Architectural ornament is the decorative treatment
of architectural motives on a building. The ornament should be
carefully studied on the small-scale designs, and worked up from these
to the working drawings.

All ornamentation or decoration should be drawn out on each
design, and particularly on the small-scale drawings, even if it is to be
carried out by other designers, modelers, or decorators ; for it should be
remembered that the one man who is to bring together into a single
composition all the elements of a design, is the Architect. The dec-
oration, whether sculptured or painted, is executed either from scale
details or full-size drawings, by the decorator or sculptor. If any
change is made from the main lines of the design, this change should
be studied on the small-scale drawings; otherwise it may be found
that the detail is entirely out of scale with the general architectural
lines.

It should be clearly understood that loading a building, a mantel,
a cornice, or any motive with ornament does not make it a work of art.
Everything depends on where and how the ornament is applied.
Besides, generally, any motive is more artistic if it is perfectly simple.

Criticism. All through the work of design, it is of greatest ad-
vantage if criticism can be obtained from other architects and drafts-
men; and even the criticism of outsiders, conscientiously made, will
frequently suggest valuable improvements in design. Whenever an
intelligent criticism is received which suggests a change, it should be a
matter of principle with every designer to make a sketch embodying
this change, in order to see whether or not the criticism is good.

308

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING 51

DESIGN OF THE DWELLING

The plan of the modern residence began to be worked out in the
18th century. There is a treatise on architecture published at that
time by Blondel, who says that a complete reformation had been made
in the architecture of large and small dwellings from the point of view
principally of the arrangement of rooms; great efforts had been made
to substitute for the long, rambling succession of single rooms, an
arrangement of rooms double in depth, with separate communications
30 indispensable for conveniences in a building.

It became clear that in a dwelling the ease of circulation was very
important, and that the approaches to and exits from the various parts
had to be well worked out, for the living rooms as well as for the service
rooms. The aim of architects in the 18th century was for independ-
ence in the house, and it is to this that we owe their very remarkable
plans.

The treatise on architecture by Blondel contains many interesting
plans, well worthy of careful study. On the subject of Room, in
particular, Blondel gives some interesting data:

"It seems", he says, "that within about fifty years French architects
have, in this respect, invented a new art. Before this, our edifices in France,
in imitation of those of Italy, had an exterior decoration which made a very
beautiful architecture; but the interiors were hardly livable. The architects
seem to have tried to keep out the light; one could hardly find a place for a
bed and for the principal articles of furniture. The fireplace occupied the
largest part of» the rooms, and the smallness of the doors gave an inadequate
idea of the places to which they gave entrance .... The arrangement should
be the first object of the architect; decoration depends absolutely on a well-
studied plan. It is the arrangement which establishes the length or width
and the height of a building."

Number of Rooms. The great objection to many small houses is
that the people want the same number of rooms for a small amount
of money that others have where more money has been spent. A de-
sire to have six rooms and a bath often results in making all the rooms
tiny and uncomfortable — more like boxes than living, habitable
spaces. These houses are not necessarily cozy just because they are
small; a cozy corner in a big room has much more of the cozy feeling
than is found in the small rooms of an apartment. There should be
one good-sized room in every house or apartment, even though one
room has to be sacrificed.

Hallway. The hallway should be neither a cramped, narrow

309

52 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

, :

space, nor arranged in such a way that it will be a draughty part of the
house. It should be borne in mind that if open from first floor to roof,
the heat will pass up the hallway; for that reason it should be suffi-
ciently closed off from the other rooms. It may be arranged as a com-
fortable gathering place for the family. Indeed, with the staircase
kept properly to one side, and with a large fireplace the hallway may
form the central room of the whole house.

Stairways. Some men say that they build a house around a
bathroom, because they consider that the most important room in the
house. Next in importance is the staircase. The front staircase
should be easy and large. A 7 to 7J-inch rise, with 10 to lOJ-inch
width of tread, is customary, though a 6|-inch rise with an 11-inch
tread is easier and looks much better. Staircases, in the better class
of house, maybe as easy as 6-inch rise by 14-inch tread, or even5|-inch
rise with 15-inch tread. In back staircases a 7-inch rise with 9-inch
tread is not too steep; and they are frequently found as steep as 8-inch
tread. If space allows, the rear staircase should be sufficiently wide
to take up trunks and furniture — say 3| to 4 feet, with wide doors
(3 feet 3 inches) opening into it. In this case the stairs should be
strongly supported. Staircases may be made fire-resisting by stopping
the space between the stringers with brick and by covering the under-
side or soffit with metal lath.

Proportion of Stair Riser to Tread. A good formula to use in
laying out a stairway is as follows: Let R = the rise and T = the
tread, then

2 R + T = 25.

i. e., twice the height of the riser plus the width of the tread
should equal 25 inches.

Living Rooms. The living room, library, parlor, reception room,
should all be "livable." The shut-up "best room" is a thing of the
past.

Sitting Room. This should have a southerly exposure, so that
it will be sunny and cheerful all the time.

The best arrangement for a sitting room is to have the fireplace
at one end, the windows at the side, and the entrance at the further
corner. The next best arrangement is to have the fireplace on the
same side of the room as the entrance, and both on the long side of
the room. The most unsatisfactory arrangement is to have the door

310

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING 53

on the wall opposite the fireplace or close by the fireplace, where there
is a constant draft.

The room should express comfort and restfulness. There should
be no feeling of over-decoration, and nothing in the room should be
so striking as to be the first and only thing to be seen. The great
objection to so-called "decoration", is that each decorator or designer
thinks only of his own work, consequently making it prominent; and
it is extremely difficult to make the decorative elements harmonize.

Dining Room. The dining room should be, as a rule, on the
side of the house toward the morning sun. It should be cool in sum-
mer and warm in winter, as it is the one room that is necessarily occu-
pied at least three times a day. A westerly outlook is generally dis-
agreeable on account of the low-lying sun for the evening meal.

Butler's Pantry. The butler's pantry should have an outside
window, and doors leading into the dining room and kitchen. Some-
times a slide is put in, opening into a small china closet in the dining
room. The butler's pantry should be quite large. The story is told,
of an architect who dined with his client several times while he was
making the sketches; and each time, on his return to his office, he en-
larged the butler's pantry, and when the building was erected it was
still one of the cramped rooms in the house.

Kitchen. The kitchen should not be placed in too close proximity
to the living rooms, and should be on the northwest corner of the house.
As a rule, it should be separated from the living parts of the house by
at least two doors. This is done, partly on account of the odors from
the cooking, and also because of the heat. A basement kitchen is
objectionable on this account. The kitchen should be thoroughly
ventilated, the windows being set high — as near the ceiling as possible
— to let out the hot air, the sill being located above the backs of the
tables and sinks. A hood over the range connecting with a ventilating
flue, is very useful for ventilating. This ventilating flue will be either
a space around the flue from the kitchen range, which will be con-
stantly warm; or it may be a separate, square flue next the smoke flue
in the chimney. It is advisable sometimes to put deafening felt over
the kitchen, so as to prevent the passage of sound and heat if there are
sleeping rooms above.

Refrigerator. The refrigerator should be located so that it will
be easily accessible from the outside, for putting in ice; and it should

311

54 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

be near the kitchen without being too near the range. The refriger-
ator drip should never connect directly with the sewer but should have
a separate pipe leading to a dry well outside the building. The sim-
plest and cleanest way to trap this is as follows: Build a galvanized-
iron pan large enough to rest on the floor under the drip-pipe of the
refrigerator; and carry lead pipe from this down into the cellar, ending
in an ordinary milk jar which stands in another galvanized-iron drip-
pan connecting with the dry well.

Storeroom. The storeroom may be made rat-proof by plastering
'on metal instead of wooden lath, and by plastering the ceiling under-
neath with the same lathing, taking the precaution to cover all open-
ings.

Bathroom. The bathroom may have tile floor and walls, or, for
ordinary work, a Georgia pine floor, with North Carolina pine sheath-
ing four feet above the floor. A sanitary base — that is, one rounded to
avoid a corner between the wall and the floor, such as is used in hospi-
tals and in many schoolhouses, may be used. Waterproof paper
should be put in between the upper and the under floor in the bath-
room, being connected by lead flashing with the outside of the building.
This will prevent damage in the case of an unexpected overflow.

Lavatory. A lavatory on the first floor is very convenient. This
may open from the hall or be connected with a coat closet. It
should have a window.

Closets. The closet doors should open in such a way that the
light from the window shines into the closet.

On the sleeping-room floor, a housemaid's closet may be pro-
vided— if possible with an outside window. This closet should con-
tain a galvanized -iron or enameled-iron sink, provided with a flushing
tank as well as with hot and cold water faucets.

The linen closet should preferably have no drawers, as they
furnish hiding places for mice. Shelves will answer every purpose.

Bicycle and dark rooms, play room, sewing room, billiard room,
music room, den, conservatory, etc., should also be considered.

Cellar. The cellar should be well drained, if possible, with a
drain-pipe separate from the soil-pipe. There should be a blind drain
under the wall, and the wall should be damp-proofed in damp locations,
by the use of layers of slate stone extending through the wall at the
surface of the ground, or layers of well-tarred paper at this point.

312

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING 55

Waterproof cellars are made by putting down severd layers of tarred
paper well mopped with hot tar or asphalt, on which the concrete cel-
lar floor is laid. As a rule, however, it is best to have the cellar con-
nected either with the soil-pipe or with the blind drain, and to have all
the concreting put in so that it will slope to one point, where will be
placed a trap with grating.

VARIOUS STAGES IN BUILDING A HOUSE

The point where the majority of people, who know nothing about
architecture, come in contact with the architect, is when they make up
their minds to build houses of their own.

To develop this point more clearly, let us consider the situation
that arises when a business man wishes to build.

The problem, as it comes to most men, is a question of number of
rooms needed, amount of money available, and proposed location of
house.

Let us say that Mr. Smith, after lookng at various lots and mak-
ing as many inquiries as possible through friends and acquaintances,
and having also gone to some real estate agent who deals largely in
land in such locations as he considers desirable, has obtained an
option on, or possibly has purchased, a. lot, the price being, say,
$800. He has available $2,000, besides the money he has set
aside for furnishing the house and paying the architect's fee.
He is willing to give a mortgage on the house for, say, $3,000.
Taking $4,600 as the value of his proposed house would leave him a
margin of $400. Accordingly, he goes to an architect who, he
he thinks, will plan his house satisfactorily, and tells him the circum-
stances, the requirements, and the amount of money available. A
visit is made to the lot, to get the points of view, etc., and preliminary
sketches are made.

Sketches. From the architect's point of view, the sketch period
is vital in respect to the success or failure of the house. It is at this
time that he becomes acquainted with the owner's ideas and does his
best to interpret them properly so that there will be no criticism or
feeling of disappointment on the part of the owner — in other words,
so that the house will harmonize completely with its owner's habits
and tastes.

Every man has certain hobbies and independent wishes in regard

313

56 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

to his house; these the architect should study and give the proper
expression.

In regard to the practical use of the house, every member of the
family, should be thought of and consulted. The architect should
obtain a careful outline of the requirements from the owner, going
over the number of rooms, size of rooms, comparing them with rooms
already known to the owner, heights of stories, location and ex-
posure of rooms, for the view, etc.

After sufficient data have been procured to make a complete
schedule, several different plans of the proposed house may be sketched
out at a small scale. Co-ordinate or section paper is very useful in
sketching out different schemes. As a general rule, it is better for
the architect to work out with great care some one plan which he
considers the most satisfactory. In dealing with some clients, it is
sometimes better to show this plan only; in the case of other clients,
it is better to show them all the studies and consult with them about
details that would be merely wearisome to other men, The sketches
are generally laid out to the scale of one-eighth inch to the foot,
though small "thumb-nail" sketches are frequently made at no scale,
or sometimes several different schemes at a scale of one-sixteenth
inch to the foot. Memoranda should be kept of all conversations
with the client, for use in completing plans and in writing specifi-
cations.

Working Drawings. After the sketches are approved, the work-
ing drawings can be started. They are sometimes called "contract
drawings," meaning the scale drawings accompanying the specifi-
cations and contract, though contract drawings really include the de-
tails, which are not generally made at the time the contract is signed.
The character of these drawings has changed very much, even in the
last few years, an astonishing amount of detail being put into the work-
ing drawings, while the architectural drawings of the English and
Italian Renaissance show that the old masters must have studied much
of their detail while the building was being erected. The main pur-
pose of the working drawings is to give complete information of the
building to be erected, as far as size and form can be expressed in pro-
jection, quality and general description being left to the specification.
It is of considerable importance to put on a single drawing as much as

314

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING 57

can be clearly expressed, since workmen generally are not inclined or
able to gather information from several different drawings.

The working drawings are laid out at quarter-inch scale,* i.e.
one-quarter inch equals one foot, with details at a scale of three-
quarter inch to the foot, accompanied with full-size details. This
is the customary scale in America. In England and also in some
American offices, the rule is to make the working drawings at a scale
of one-eighth inch to the foot, with details at a scale of one-half inch to
the foot.

Plans of every floor, including basement and roof, all the ele-
vations, and such sections as may be necessary to explain the con-
struction, are required. In the sections, the vertical dimensions
should be figured from finished floors.

Besides these drawings, a block or ground plan is frequently
given, generally at TV or -^j inch to the foot, to show adjacent walls,
gardens, etc., and layout of grounds, location of drains, dry wells,
cesspool, and water supply.

Separate plans may be given in procuring estimates for heating,
ventilating, plumbing, and gas and electric lighting. These should
be made subject to changes that may be proposed by the successful
bidder, and, with these changes, should be presented by him to the
architect for approval before finally going ahead with the work. This
method is followed, because a guarantee is expected from the contrac-
tor for the successful operation of his work; and each contractor in the
trades mentioned is likely to have good methods of his own, which he
should be allowed to use. Sometimes all of these drawings may be
incorporated in the general drawings.

Full-Size Details. Mouldings, and special parts of exterior and
interior fiinish, such as base-courses, water-table, belts, cornices, cap-
itals, special arrangement of brickwork, panels, carving, window-
casings, mantels, stair-newels, balusters, etc., are drawn full size;
carefully drawn sections are made full size. "Key drawings" at small
scale, isometrics, and freehand perspectives are invaluable aids if
drawn on the full size drawings. For cast iron and terra-cotta, allow-
ance is sometimes made for shrinkage. This should preferably be
left to the pattern-maker.

*NOTE:— There is a great difference between " quarter-inch scale " (i.e., 5iinch = )
foot) and "quarter scale, " or one-quarter of full size (i.e., 3 inches — 1 foot).

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

Besides the contract drawings and subsequent detail drawings,
other drawings are frequently called for, for which allowances have
been made in the contract, as for furniture, special finish, etc.

• .SHOWN • ON-ELE\^T10N6-£)Y-

•W<JDE> RRICK-^TONE-MET^-^HINGLK- TC

• ON -PLANS - & -SECTIONS -BY-

NUCK- RUBELE -SIOtfE- WOOD • Tm-PR; • T -C • •JVSETM,- CONOR-

Fig. 26.

Representation of Materials. This may be either by blacking
in, hatching, etc., or by use of colors. The former method (Fig. 26)
is convenient for tracings to be blue-printed, as it saves coloring the
prints.

On elevations, materials are shown as follows:

Wood white.

Brick horizontal lines.

Stone dotted.

Metal vertical lines.

Shingles sketched to scale.

Terra-cotta, etc abbreviations marked "T.C.", etc.

On plans and sections:

Brick diagonal hatching, ruled lines.

Rubble diagonal hatching, wavy lines.

Stone dotted.

Wood ..grain indicated, or black if small-scale.

Fireproofing hatched margin, dotted surface.

Terra-cotta divisions to suggest material.

Metal steel sections suggested.

Concrete cross-hatched.

Old work white.

316

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING 59

If colors are preferred, the following may be used:

Brass and copper yellow.

Brick light red.

Concrete Payne's grey, mottled.

Glass new blue.

Glass in elevations a graded wash of India ink, indigo, new

blue with a little carmine.

Old work grey or black.

Plaster Payne's grey.

Sections construction not determined, pink with

red border line.

Shadow in elevation India ink with indigo or gallstone.

Slate indigo.

Steel arid iron Prussian blue.

Stone raw umber or new blue, or Payne's grey.

Terra-cotta burnt umber.

Tiling light red with yellow.

Wood yellow ochre.

Coloring may be carried further, following this scheme, always
placing guide-squares in one corner of the drawing with the names
of the materials represented.

Tracing and Blue-Printing. Drawings of which several copies
are needed, may be traced on transparent paper or linen, or laid out
directly on these materials. Thin bond paper is often used. Prints
may be taken from these, either blue or brown prints, giving white
lines on a blue -or brown ground, or by first taking negatives, dark
lines on a white ground.

Notes should be kept for the specifications while drawings are
being made.

Letting the Contract: When the working drawings and specifica-
tions are finished, owner and architect decide on three or four builders,
any one of whom would be satisfactory, who are asked to submit es-
timates. The builders are allowed time enough to go over the plans
and specifications carefully so that they may know the actual value of
the work; and bids are sent in to the architect's office to be opened
on a certain day, when the owner meets the successful bidder and a
contract is signed for building the house.

In France there is generally a separate contractor for each kind
of work; in England a general contractor makes up his bid from quan-
tities given him by a quantity-surveyor ; in America usually the sub-
bids are given to a general contractor who takes the responsibility for
the whole work.

317

60 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

The work generally starts immediately on the signing of the con-
tract, and is carried on continuously, with visits from the owner and
from the architect, payments being made at regular intervals or on
completion of certain parts of the work.

During the progress of building, the owner and architect select
fixtures, wall papers, etc.

BUILDINGS FOR OFFICES

The plan must be laid out so as to obtain the largest possible
amount of space available; it must be made with reference to the con-
structive requirements.

Arrange the offices so as to take advantage of surroundings and
light. A good outlook makes an office more desirable.

Staircases, elevators, piers, etc., should be arranged so that the
actual renting space will be an open loft, where offices and windows
can be divided up easily to suit different tenants, and can be easily
changed.

Make the street entrance and corridors so that the offices can be
easily reached and doors and signs easily seen. The corridors should
not be less than 3 feet 8 inches wide; as a general rule, they should be
4 feet to 8 feet wide, depending upon the use, the number of offices
and the size of the building.

Arrange janitor's and superintendent's offices, telephone, tele-
graph, news booths, and elevators so that the tenants and public may
be quickly accommodated.

As a rule, unless there are two frequently used entrances, the
elevators should be placed so that they can all be seen by a person
entering the building.

A car 5 feet 3 inches by 6 feet, with a door on the long side and
the rest of the side removable, is convenient for handling ordinary
office furniture. One elevator in the building should be as large as
this. Other elevators may be smaller.

If a building is more than 6 stories high, it is advisable to have
one or more elevators express to the 6th story. The doors at the
lowest floor, where the largest number of passengers pass in and out,
and where there is generally a "starter" to see that the cars are not
overcrowded, may be arranged so that the whole side of the car will
open, allowing all the passengers in the elevator to pass out at once.

318

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING 61

Staircases are rarely used in an office building. A width of 3
feet 3 inches is generally sufficient; and sometimes staircases are as
small as 2 feet 9 inches.

If there is a light court, it should be of such shape and location
as to receive as much sun as possible.

There should be toilet rooms on every floor; generally lavatories
are placed in the separate offices. Radiators are put in front of each
window, transoms over every door; the lighting is done by electricity
with drop-lights and receptacles for desk-lights.

Write the specifications so that the building may be economically
constructed and will be a paying investment, and yet not so cheaply
built that it will be unattractive or constantly needing repairs.
PRACTICAL EXAMPLE : A COLONIAL HOUSE

Conditions. A business man, having purchased a lot sufficiently
large to give him space on all sides, wishes to build a colonial house
containing nine rooms.

On the first floor, a hall is to be in the center, with vestibule and
porch in front and doorway at the rear, so that the air may circulate
freely in the summer time. The hall is to be about 15 feet wide. At
the front, on the left, opening off this hall, the owner wishes to have a
large room about 14 feet by 25 feet. The parlor and dining room are
to be about 14 feet by 12 feet each. On the right of the hall, next to
the dining room, is to be a china closet, with shelves and drawers,
connecting with the kitchen. Beyond the kitchen is to be a pantry,
with shelves, cupboards, and cases of drawers. The back entry is
to have a place for a refrigerator. The rear door of the front hall is
to open on an ample porch, where the family may sit.

The second floor is to have four bedrooms and an alcove in the
main part of the house, a convenient bathroom and bedroom in the
rear, and suitable linen closets. There are to be a front stairway and
a compact back stairway. The attic is to be arranged for sleeping
rooms.

Sketches. The drawings first to be made are sketches at a scale
of one-eighth inch to the foot, drawn on Whatman's paper, with the
plans inked in and the walls shown black. The elevations may be
sketched in pencil, merely the front and left-side elevations being
shown.

319

62 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

Figs. 28 to 48 show complete working plans of a house fulfilling
these conditions — a three-storied frame residence, such as is frequently
constructed in our suburban country towns and smaller cities. The
drawings include the basement, first floor, second floor, attic, and roof
plans, front elevation, and one side elevation, corresponding framing
plans, and details of different parts of the house. Details are not
always included in the contract drawings, but are made as the work
progresses. The rear elevation and one side elevation have been
omitted, as they are of the same character as those shown. These
plans are usually drawn at the scale of one-quarter inch to the foot;
in the illustrations, they are reduced.

Plans. On commencing the quarter-scale, the principal dimen-
sions should be given in feet and inches, not in fractions of an inch,
to the outside line of the sill. The main contour lines should be mark-
ed first, and then the wall should be shown on the first floor, six inches
thick. The sill line is shown on Fig. 29, one inch inside of the
outer wall line, and is merely drawn in a little way at the corner of
the building. In drawing out the plans in pencil, the lines may be run
straight through, taking no notice of openings. The lines that run
over can easily be erased later. In commencing to lay out the
plan, it is well to draw the center lines or axes first, as all the sym-
metrical points of the building will be laid out from these axes. Doors
and windows either center on an axis, or, as a rule, are equidistant.
The bay windows and chimneys are also located if possible on the
axis lines. The door and window openings in the exterior walls are
not located in plan until the elevations are laid out. When this
is done, the sizes of window designed on the elevation can be
transferred to the plan. As mentioned previously, in working over
the plans, notes should be made for the specifications and marked
on the plans; for example — g. p. (glass panel); c.w. (casement win-
dow); 1. 1. (top light or transom light).

Elevations. In laying out the front elevation, the center line
should be sketched in sharply, in pencil; and the location of the sill
line should be marked at the right and left of this center line. Then
the outside finished building line should be drawn one inch outside
the sill line, this being the outside of the boarding.

Useful Memoranda. In laying out plans at one-quarter of an
inch to the foot, the beginner is often puzzled to know the simplest way

320

PLAA

IWBLZ, H17NQ WINPOW.FEAME W1LP1N&

jide uaLl tine

JV1NG POOR

FLUE/ WITH FLUE LINING

KITCHEN RANGE FLUE

KITCHEN JINK

BATH ROOM

LAUNPRY TUEJ

KITCHEN DREWER

o a a -3 -*• »3

1 1 1 I I I I

Fig. 27.

64 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

to show ordinary constructive forms; and in tracing plans, which a
beginner is likely to be called upon to do, if the original is not very
distinct, he will find it useful to have some guide for convenient
reference — as, for example, that shown in Fig. 27. The lines in the
drawing (a) of double-hung windows can all be laid to scale, though
very simply expressed. The sill is shown, both outside and inside;
and also the sash opening and glass opening. In a brick building,
the brickwork and wood furring are shown (6). The distinction
between single-sash (c) and double-hung windows (c?) will be found
convenient. The distinction between a casement window (/) and a
French window (e) is not shown in plan, as the difference lies prin-
cipally in the fact that the French window is carried to the floor. The
casement window, on the other hand, is, in general, slightly different
in having a mullion in the center for each sash to strike on. The
French window is shown opening out, and the casement window
opening in ; but these could be made to open either way, and the
casement window could be built singly, or in pairs, or in series.

In placing a fireplace (g] on the outside wall, an air space
should always be left to prevent unnecessary cooling of the flues. The
finished brick fireplace should be distinguished from the rough
chimney; and, where necessary, flue linings should be shown. A
space should be shown separating the furring from the brickwork at
least one inch, as prescribed in all good building laws. This applies
also to fireplaces on inside walls. The hearth is shown, either the
width of the finished fireplace, or sometimes the width of the chimney-
breast, and projecting 16, 18, 20 inches, or more into the room.

If the kitchen range is to be brick-set, a similar hearth and chim-
ney-breast must be built (i) ; and in all cases it is advisable to have
the kitchen duct circular (h), set in a rectangular flue which it keeps
warm and which is available for ventilating the kitchen through a
register set near the kitchen ceiling. The kitchen sink (y) should
always be shown with drip-board. A kitchen or pantry dresser (&)
should be shown with doors opening out — not sliding, unless the
space is very limited. Laundry tubs (/) should be shown as indi-
cated in the drawing. A bath-tub is indicated as shown (TO), and
other toilet fixtures are indicated similarly. Single (n) and double (o)
sliding doors (inside), single doors (p) and double swing doors (q)
are indicated as shown.

322

" PLAH-

0123 4-«S sr Q

Kg. 2&

66 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

Basement Plan. Fig. 28 shows the basement plan of the resi-
dence. Dimensions are all given to the outside of the underpinning
rubble wall, which in this case is 2 inches outside the sill line, as shown
in the half-inch scale section. The footings of piazza piers at the
front of the house are shown dotted. On the left side of the piazza
is lattice-work covering the opening into the cold-air box for the fur-
nace. The underpinning is of stone 20 inches thick; and the piazza
piers are 12 inches square, built of bricks. The posts holding the
girders are usually made of iron, three-quarter-inch metal, three and
one-half inches in diameter. Sometimes these posts are made of iron
about one-quarter inch thick, filled with concrete, the cost being about
the same as that of brick piers, with the advantage of taking up less
space than the latter in the cellar. The footings of the chimneys are
not shown; the ash-pit under the chimney has an iron door for cleaning;
and the coal-bins are made with slides, and located conveniently near
the furnace and not too far from the kitchen stairs, with the partition
so placed that coal can be thrown from the window into either bin.
A storeroom is built with shelves, convenient to the cellar stairs. A
laundry, with set tubs, is placed in the best lighted part of the cellar.
A very desirable item frequently overlooked in planning, is to allow
a space at the right-hand end of the laundry tubs for the clothes-basket.
The laundry should also have a chimney near the laundry stove.
There are also a basement toilet-room and an outside hatchway or
rollway. The windows, as a rule, should be located under the win-
dows in the upper story; and as the basement plan is frequently used
on the work separately from the other plans, all dimensions should be
given, so that no reference to the other plans will be necessary. The
window openings may be figured to centers, but they are sometimes
figured to the brick or stone opening. The heater, or hot-air furnace,
is placed near the center of the cellar. The cold-air box should be
arranged so as to take air from the side least affected by the changing
winds (south or east). In the case here illustrated, it has been lo-
cated under the front porch.

First-Floor Plan. This, the most important of all the working
drawings (Fig.. 29), shows at a glance the main proportions and dimen-
sions of the whole building, besides being the plan of what, in our
American manner of living, is the principal story of the house.

This house would be located to the best advantage on a lot facing

3.?4

f OR. - GEORGE.-A-.JDrtEJ-

•P«.ANK. A. bOOE/ffi- -AeiHITECT"
-/•vAvJOrt- 601 UDlrtS. &0/TOAW

-PLAM- OF- FIT^TT- F.LOOR.-

Fig. 29.

68 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

the south or southeast. This would put the kitchen on the north,
the dining room on the east (which would give it the desirable mornng
sun), and the parlor on the south and west.

The front porch sheltering the front doorway, and the vestibule
and second door, form a protection necessary in cold northern climates.
The hall and staircase in the center of the house open into the principal
rooms. The living room on the left, 14 by 25 feet, opens by French
windows on the piazza. The parlor to the right connects by sliding
doors with the dining room. The living room and dining room both
have open fireplaces.

From the rear of the hall a door opens on the rear porch, and
another door leads to the passage connecting with the kitchen and the
back stairs. Beyond the dining room and the kitchen is a large china
closet, having glazed shelving and also a counter shelf on which is
dotted the location for a china-closet sink — which, shown in this way,
would not be considered- a part of a contract, but could be put in later.
From the kitchen a staircase leads down to the basement. The
kitchen has windows on both sides, giving a cross-draft for ventilation,
which is very agreeable in summer.

In the rear of the kitchen is a pantry, with cupboards, drawers,
and shelving. The large back entry is planned for a refrigerator,
which has an ice door on the rear, to be put in according to the direc-
tions furnished by the refrigerator maker.

This plan should be laid out like all the others, from a center axis,
the dimensions being figured to outside of studs for outside w^alls, and
to the center of partitions for inside walls, and to the centers of the
window openings.

The sill line is f- inch inside the outside line of the walls shown,
while the inner line representing the plaster surface is 4f or 4f inches
inside the sill line. The dimensions being given in this way, it is a
simple matter for the carpenter on the building to run his measuring
stick between the outside studding and against the outside boarding,
and to measure across, thus locating the center of an interior partition
or the center of one of the windows. The location of gas and electric
fixtures is shown by circles on the plans.

Second-Floor Plan. This is shown in Fig. 30. Only those
dimensions are given on these plans which are not indicated on the
first floor, as all second-floor partitions are supposed to rest on the

326

Fig. 30.

.-c& -ROOF"

Fig. 31,

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING 71

partitions below, if possible. The roofs of the porch and piazza are
shown. These may be covered with painted canvas or with tin, and,
if they are to be much used, should be provided also with a floor of
wood slats. The staircase and hall are shown with an alcove opening
toward the front, lighted from the window over the front porch. This
alcove is separated from the hall by an arch resting on small col-
umns, making an attractive sitting room. There are doors from it
into the adjacent bedrooms. Instead of the arched opening, a parti-
tion may be put in, making a convenient dressing room. The bed-
rooms are 11 by. 14 feet, and are provided with closets.

One bedroom has a fireplace, and the two bedrooms on the left of
the house have access to a chimney. There is a small linen closet,
provided with wide shelves, opening out of the hall. Sometimes the
lower part of this closet is provided with drawers, and the upper part
with wide lockers having drop fronts. The opening between the front
hall and the rear hall can be closed with a door, if desired ; or the door
can be placed opposite the partition between the bathroom and the
rear bedroom. The bathroom comes directly over the butler's pantry,
so that the plumbing is all very compactly arranged. The staircase
to the attic goes up over the back stairs that lead down to the kitchen.
The rear bedroom, which could be used as a servants' room, is pro-
vided with a large closet. A large linen closet, with shelves and
drawers, opens into the rear hall.

Attic and Roof Plan. The attic, as shown in Fig. 31, is left un-
finished, with the exception of the hall at the top of the back stairs.
The location of the tank is shown near a chimney, and a small closet
opens off the hall. The roof lines are shown by dot-and-dash lines,
which are frequently drawn in red on the working drawings. The
frame line (i. e., the line of the outside of the sill and the studding) —
which should appear on all the working drawings — is shown here in
full, with all dimensions noted thereon.

Front and Side Elevations. As shown in Figs. 32 and 33, the
character of the house is "Colonial," of about the period of the be-
ginning of the nineteenth century. The treatment is very simple and
the details should be worked out delicately to obtain the Colonial
character. The construction is comparatively simple, the base being
of brick, sometimes with a granite course at grade, and sometimes the
whole underpinning being of split granite. The wall is covered with

5 <:•
$81

DETAIL- OF- FT2QNT- ELEVATION'
-•LJ.t ? t f

Fig.

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING 75

clapboards, with cypress or pine finish. The roof is covered with
shingles. The location of the floors is shown by a dot-and-dash line,
which in working drawings is frequently put in in red ink. The
height of the floors is 9 feet for the first story, 8 feet 6 inches for the
second story, with an attic 8 feet in the clear. The cellar is to be 8
feet high in the clear.

Detail of Front Elevation. Fig. 34, showing detail of the front
elevation, is reduced from a drawing made at a scale of one-half inch
to the foot. This is sufficiently large to show very clearly to the work-
men the relation and character of the mouldings^ which must, of
course, be worked out at full size. The cornice and the front entrance
are here shown, the cornice consisting of the Roman Doric Order, as
treated in the Colonial period, the column having a modified Attic
base, and a shaft with the customary entasis. This entasis or swelling
of the column extends one-third of its height without diminution, and
tapers slightly until it comes to the necking. The cap is very simple,
consisting of astragal, necking, fillet, and echinus, all turned; a square
abacus, consisting of a fascia, ogee, and fillet. The architrave con-
sists of a fascia, small bead, another fascia, ogee, and fillet. The
frieze in this type of building is usually plain; and the cornice, which
may be gi eatly varied, consists, in this case, of a great quarter-hollow,
fillet, quarter-round, fascia with brackets, and a corona consisting of
fascia, fillet, and cyma. Between the columns is a balustrade with
turned balusters. The cornice is surmounted by another balustrade
with posts, top and bottom rail, and turned balusters. The doorway
is worked out in old Colonial style, with paneling peculiar to that pe-
riod. The sash may be made either according to the design shown,
in wood, or with wide leads, which may be painted white. Windows
are shown with outside casing and back band; and the center window
has a small cap to accent the central portion of the house. The water-
table is formed to take up the slight projections of the brick underpin-
ning beyond the outside boarding. It consists of a wide fascia, an
astragal, and a splayed member. The corner is paneled, as shown.
Sometimes a plain corner-board is employed, and at other times it is
made larger and finished with a Classic capital and base. The cornice
of the house is similar to the cornice of the porch, the frieze and archi-
trave being omitted, as is quite customary on Colonial houses, al-
though there are examples of Colonial houses where the complete en-

333

^ FIRJT-FLOOR,-

-"oo-t-
01 a. 3 46 <&T

4l, 1,1 I I I \

rig. 35.

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING 77

tablature is used. The dormer shows a peculiar Colonial treatment,
using a small Doric Order on each side of the arched window. The
muntins of the sash are generally worked out in wood. At the side of
the roof is shown a side elevation of the dormer.

First-Floor Framing Plan. (Fig. 35.) The supports shown with
a dot-and-dash line would usually be shown in red ink in the working
drawings. The sill, 6 by 8 inches, laid flat, is shown with a full line
running all around the building. The girders and the posts on which
they rest are shown in a full line, the girders being 8 inches by 10 inches,
and the posts not over 10 feet apart. The piazza girders are 4 by 6,
and the piazza sills are 4 by 6. The piazza floor joists are 2 by 8 inches,
20 inches on center. The dimensions are given to the outside of the
sill, and to the centers of the partitions. Where the partitions come
over each other and are parallel to the joists, a joist is set 1 inch each
side of the studs of the partition, so that the rough floor boards may
run directly through and leave room for nailing for the finished floor
each side of the partitions. Trimmers and headers are double the
size of their respective floor joists, being 4 by 10 inches in this case.
All joists are set 2 inches clear of the -fireplace openings. The dis-
tances are given to the centers of the trimmers, but sometimes dimen-
sions are given for the clear opening. All the first-floor joists are to be
2 by 10, placed 16 inches on centers. The bridging is shown dotted.
This is made of 1 by 2^-inch stock set diagonally between the joists.

It will be noticed that all the 2-inch joists except those in special
locations — for example, under a partition, as above mentioned — are
shown with only a single line, all other timbers being shown with a
double line.

Second-Floor Framing Plan. The second-floor framing plan
(Fig. 36) is similar to the first-floor, the girts, 4 by 6 inches, being
shown instead of the sill. The framing of the roofs of the porches is
shown, and notes are made where the girts are flush or where they are
sunk. In certain cases it will be noticed that the joists are carried
through, continuous. It often happens that shorter stock might have
been used at no disadvantage to the building. The joists across the
building should be nailed together wherever possible, so as to make a
complete tie across the building.

Attic Framing Plan. On this drawing (Fig. 37), the roof plate
is shown, and also the location of the hard pine ledger-board. The

335

- OF-

. -

O'ca.le, of I_i_Li-L_L_L_LJ/e,e,t
Fig. 36.

.(-PAR CAP- -PAR -CAP--

TRACING- PLAtt" OF- THIRD - FLOOR. •
r Tim ?TTTTT/e.«.t

Fig. 37.

/7I

- OF- ROOF-

e 3 * J5 era

Fig. 38.

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING 83

partition caps of the story below, on which the joists rest, are shown.
The joists in the attic floor are 2 by 8, placed 16 inches on centers.

Roof Framing Plan. The rafters and hips are shown (Fig. 38)
2 by 10 ; the valley rafters, 3 by 9 ; the ridge, 2 by 8 inches. The rafters
either side of the dormer openings are 4 by 7, and the headers for the
dormers are also 4 by 7 inches. All the other main rafters are 2 by 7
inches, placed 20 inches on centers; and the dormer rafters, 2 by 6,
placed 20 inches on centers. The plate line, which is the same as the
first-floor sill line, is shown as a full line, and the dimensions are given
from this line.

Framing of Front Elevation. The framing of the front elevation
of the house above the foundation is shown in Fig. 39. The sill is
6 by 8, resting on its 8-inch face. The corner posts are 4 by 6, framed
into the sill; and a 4 by 6 flush girt is shown running around the house.
It will be noticed that the girt stops on the side elevations where it is
marked "4 by 6 sunk girt" (Fig. 40). The plate is formed of 2 by 4
joists, which break joints all around the building. The frame is
braced by 3 by 4 studs, these braces being as long as possible, which
is considered better construction than the former short-brace system.
In cheaper work, 2 by 4 braces, halved into the studding, are sometimes
used in the same position. The filling-in studs are 2 by 4, set 16
inches on centers. The door and window studs are 3 by 4 inches, set
5 inches clear of the sash opening.

The dimensions are given to the centers of the openings. The
heights are generally given to the finished floor, which would be 2
inches above the joist line. The large openings are trussed, as shown
over the front door opening. The rafters are 2 by 7, set 20 inches on
centers, the hips being 2 by 10, and the valley rafters 3 by 4. The
dormers are built up of 4 by 4 corner posts-and 4 by 7 rafters each side
of the opening. The ridge is 2 by 8, the distance to the top of ridge
being given above the top of the plate, and all the points on the ridge
rafters and ridge may be located on the sill line to the junction of the
hip.

Framing of Side Elevation. The sill, girts, corner posts, stud-
ding, plate, and rafters (Fig. 40), are similar to those already described
on the front elevation. The framing of the front and rear porches is
also shown, with the dimensions given similarly. The attic floor joists

341

Fig. 41.

•DETAIU-OF^ KITCHEN 'PANTRY- ETC'

•-EZJJDEflCIL-ATl

-DETAIL OF PANTRIE5 - ^

<? 9 6 3 °.

Fig? 42--

Fig. 43.

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING 87

ace supported on a 1 by 6 hard pine ledger-board, which is cut into
the studding after the manner of balloon framing.

Main Cornice and Dormer. Fig. 41 is reduced from a drawing
made at a scale of three-fourths inch to the foot. This plate should be
drawn out at the original scale mentioned; and a full-size pencil
study should be made for comparison.

Kitchen, Pantry, and China Closet. Fig. 42 shows the details
of kitchen, pantry, and china closet reduced from a drawing made at
a scale of one-half inch to the foot, and larger details at a scale of one
and one-half inches to the foot, showing shelving, lockers, and doors.
These are all included in the interior finish, and should follow the
specifications as to sizes. The mouldings should all be full-size.

Plumbing. Fig. 43 shows the plumbing details for this building,
These details are carried somewhat further than is usually done on
plans, but no further than advisable, as they will be found of great
assistance in carrying out and superintending the work. The base-
ment plan shows the direction of the sewer connection, which is a hori-
zontal pipe, six inches in diameter, of cast iron, located either on the
basement ceiling or in a trench on the cellar floor. In this case it must
be below the cellar-floor
level in order to take the
laundry tubs. The sec-
tion shows the elevations
of the pipe carried up
through the house.

There will be a trap between the point shown and the sewer, just out-
side the wall of the house. The leader connections are 4-inch cast-iron
pipe inside the house in cellar floor, and 4-inch terra-cotta outside the
house, to take the water from the gutters and conductors. On the
first connection there is a cleanout, and the size of the pipe is reduced
from 6 inches to 4 inches. There should be cleanouts at every bend,
and also at about every fifteen feet of horizontal run. There should
be a bell trap (Fig. 44) to take the cellar surface water, also branches
for general fixtures through the house, as shown. The vertical pipe
of 4-inch cast iron would rest on a brick pier at the bottom built by the
mason.

The vent pipes from the trap of every fixture are shown in dotted
lines, and are carried up beyond the highest fixture, where they may be

345

Fig. 45.

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING 89

carried back into the soil pipe or through the roof. Branches are
taken off for the laundry tubs, china closet, sink, lavatory, tub, and
closet, as shown in the section and on the first and second-floor plumb-
ing plans. Sometimes these pipes are shown in blue on the regular
working drawings; but there is an advantage in having them on a sep-
arate sheet, as has been done in this detail. The vent pipes from the
traps may be of 2-inch cast iron or of 2-inch galvanized wrought iron.
This practice varies with the building laws in different localities.

Detail of General Window Frames. Fig. 45 shows the method of
laying out a full-size detail of a window box. Such a drawing is one
of the first things usually given to a draftsman on entering an archi-
tect's office, and one of the most important details of house building
to become acquainted with. The drawing shows an elevation of the
lower left-hand corner and upper left-hand corner of the window-
frames seen from the outside. The lower part of the drawing shows
a section through the window sill. Taking the scale of 6 inches shown
at the top of the drawing, it would be found that the window sill can
be made from 2-inch stock finished about one and three-quarters
inches thick. On the outside, next to the clapboards, is a bed-mould-
ing, and the slope of the sill forms a good drip to throw off water. The
clapboards are housed into the under side of the sill. The sill rests on
a 3 by 4 or 4 by 4 horizontal stud under 'the window opening. The
inner side of the sill is cut to come on a line with the finished plaster.
The plaster stop or ground, which is either three-quarters or seven-
eighths inch thick, according to the proposed thickness of the plaster,
is nailed on to the 3 by 4 stud. The space between the stud and the
sill is frequently filled with mortar. At the left of the drawing is shown
a section through the side of the window box.

The outside architrave is arranged on the outside of the boarding;
and a back band, or moulded strip, forms a finish around the outside
edge. The layers of paper are generally run on the boarding under
this outside architrave; and sometimes zinc flashing is used in very
exposed positions, being turned up against the outside architrave.
The small three-quarter round bead shown in the drawing may be
omitted. The 3 by 4 stud is set so as to leave space for the weights.
It is a good rule to remember that the distance from the stud to the
glass opening is 5 inches, and the distance from the sill stud the same.
The distance from stud at window head to glass opening is 4 inches.

347

00 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

The pulley stile is of hard pine; and the parting strip, or stop-bead
between the two sashes, is also hard pine. Between the outside archi-
trave and the sash is put in a small screen strip, to give space enough
for a mosquito screen between blinds and sash. On the inside of the
sash is a stop-bead, which forms a part of the interior finish and covers
the rough part of the window frame.

The upper part of the drawing shows a section through the win-
dow head. Sometimes the window frame head is made of thinner
r,tock than that shown. This completes the rough window box as it is
shipped from the sash factory to the building. At the building, it is
nailed in place against the rough boarding; and later the sash, which
come a little too large for their position, are fitted into place. Sections
horizontally and vertically are shown through the sash, including meet-
ing rail and muntins. The sash at the sill is wider than elsewhere, and
underneath is usually beveled where it comes against the finished win-
dow stool, so that it will s"hut tight. There is also usually a groove
underneath, to intercept any water that may blow in. The meeting-
rail may be made on the outside sash, to drop below the meeting-rail
on the inside sash, forming a drip which will prevent the water washing
down on the glass of the lower sash.

The inside -finish is frequently included on the general interior-
finish drawings of the building, and is not always sent out with the
window-frame details. The window stool is shown on the drawing,
with a small space underneath where it comes against the sash, which
forms a slight interruption for any water that may pass the other
groove. The -apron is nailed onto the sill and plaster stop; arid a
moulding is generally run under the window stool where it joins the
apron. A back band may be laid around the inside architrave, against
the plastering; or the inside architrave may be all one piece.

Fig. 46shows several, variations from the details of window frames
illustrated in Fig. 45; and these can be still further varied if de-
sired; or a combination of the parts may be made, taking certain de-
tails from each detail given.

The frames, unless otherwise shown, are usually made of white
pine. Pulley stiles and parting beads are made of hard pine.

The pulley stiles are seven-eighths inch thick, tongued into the
outside casings, as shown in the section through the side of the window
box. The-parting or stop beads are seven-eighths by one-half inch in

348

FRAMED

Fig. 46.

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

size; sometimes they are made seven-eighths by three-eighths inch,
the latter giving more room for the screen strip.

WTien two-coat work is specified for plaster, the plaster stops are
generally .three-quarters inch thick; when three-coat work is used,
generally seven-eighths inch thick. Very often the window box is
completed by ground-casing either three-quarters or seven-eighths
inch thick, as shown in Fig. 47; in this case no ground or plaster stops
are necessary around the window frames. The yoke or window-frame

head is generally made
one and three-eighths or
one and one-half inches
thick. The sills are set
to pitch one and one-half
inches. Care must be
taken to see that the
blinds are made suffi-
ciently long to fit, as
stock frames are fre-
quently made with a
slope of not over one-
half inch in four inches.
The outside casing — or
outside architrave, as it

-g^| C^nA- C-us

WeigKt

v/tud

bo*

•H

3 x-l

Boa-ding Ol&jide. CtxfinJ.

Fig. 47.

is sometimes called — may be set either flush with the boarding or out-
side the boarding. Wrhen it is set flush with the boarding, the shingles
may be carried directly across the joint, and finished against a back
band, wrhich comes around the outside of the window frame. The
outside casing is generally seven-eighths inch thick, and five inches or
sometimes four and one-half inches in width. In certain cases it is
made of one and one-eighth inch stock, when it is to be set outside t'ae
boarding. Sometimes, instead of the back-band shown, an architrave
made from one and one-eighth to one and three-quarter inch stock is
planted on the outside casing. This would show the distinction be-
tween the outside casing and the outside architrave. The method of
using a ground casing and outside casing flush with the boarding is
inexpensive, and therefore in quite common use. It does not give .suffi-
cient room for a screen strip, and does not make a very tight casing
where the pulley stile connects with the sill.

350

•DETAIL °r
•FROMT- -PORi

•?>lffTES.->

yJCTlOrt •
•THRO'-
•WATER
•TABLE

Fig. 48.

- OTVQN-F1RJT- FLOOR,

RELfl DENCE.- AT-

Kg. 49.

ARCH ITECTUR AT , DR AWING

The sash are usually made one and three-quarters inches thick,
for house construction; sometimes, in less expensive work, they are
made one and one-half inches thick, and, for "cheap cellar windows,
one and one-quarter inches thick. For plate glass they should not be
less than one and three-quarter inches thick; and for important work,
they are usually two and one-quarter inches thick. Frames may be
veneered on the inside, to match the other interior finish.

Porch and Front Entrance. For detail of these, see Fig. 48.

Trim on First Floor. For detail, see Fig. 49.

Uniform Titles for Drawings. Fig. 50 shows a scheme for a uni-
form title to be use on working drawings. . This may be made as a rub-
ber stamp, the name of the drawing being lettered in, the name of the

•PRANW-
•TRACED-

•CHECKED-
•APPROVED1

•BASEMENT -PLAN-

•£CALE' 14* INCH- =-l-FOOr-

•BUILDING -NO-
•^KELT-NO
•PATS-
•REVISED-

•RESIDENCE- FOR-
-GEORGE- AJOJSES- &*•
•BOSTON- MASS-

-n^AM-A-BOURNE-ARCHlTtCT
•96-/\AiTOM-BLDG.- -DCXTTO/A

Fig. 50.

building being set up in rubber type, and the remainder being perma-
nent. This stamp should be put on the drawing whenever it is started,
a rubber dating stamp being used to give the date of beginning; the
building number and sheet number should be recorded in the drawing
book. The architect or draftsman who lays out the drawing puts his
initials under the word "Drawn;" the draftsman who finishes it puts
his initials under the word "Traced;" another puts his initials underthe
word "Checked," with the date; and finally the architect adds his ini-
tials and date after the drawings are ready to go out of the office. On
the lower right-hand corner is a space where date of any revision may
be entered. This stamp may be made four and seven-eighths inches
long, so that it can be used on a 3 by 5 index card, for the drawing
record; and also on a postal card, for a receipt to be signed by the con-

853

JTAIRCAJL & FIREPLAX • DETTMLJ -

FRONT HALL

SCISSORS STAIRCASE
FLG.G

FLG.H

Fig. 51.

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING 97

tractor on receiving the drawing, or for any other memoranda in re-
gard to drawings.

Staircase and Fireplace Details. One of the best ways to prepare
for the designing of buildings is to study and make memoranda of
interesting plans and details. This is especially true in relation to
house building, as well as to the planning of large buildings. Some
of the most interesting sketch books are those filled with small-plan
details which can be referred to and used in the same manner as win-
dow or door details could be used in designing elevations. Fig. 51
shows several such small drawings on one sheet.

Fig. A shows the usual way of working out a back staircase entirely
enclosed between partitions, one staircase going down under the other.
This is very compact, and may be worked out in wood or iron and be-
tween plaster or brick walls. The space may be larger or smaller
than that shown. The width of stairs from the finished wall to center
of rail should never be less than 2 feet 2 inches for the smallest stair-
case, and usually 2 feet 8 inches is employed for a back staircase.
Sometimes the newel posts are brought together as one, making what
is practically a circular staircase.

Fig. B shows a combination staircase; that is to say, the front
staircase goes up to a landing, and then continues in any direction to
the second floor. From this landing a door opens, leading down to
the service part of the house, giving many of the. ad vantages of a back
staircase, with loss of only a small amount of space.

Fig. C gives an interesting combination of staircase and fireplace.
The fireplace is one step below the general floor level; and the ceiling
is kept lower than the general ceiling of the room, with a small stair-
case leading up, to a mezzanine story, above the fireplace, which may
be arranged to look down on the main floor of the room or may form a
sort of gallery.

Fig. D shows a staircase going up to a landing which is carried
out into a room as a balcony indicated by dotted lines. At this
level a little bay window is carried out over an outside doorway below.
As there are only eleven risers shown, it would be necessary in this case
to have the landing made of plank laid flat, to get head room for the
seat.

Fig. E shows a compact arrangement of hall, coat closet, and out-

355

THREL-CWR.TE.R~3C'ALE, -DETAIL -Of -CUT • ^TONE-WORK.
CENTRAL PAVILION - 'EASTERN- PARKWAY- aEVATlON- ^•"•^

• INDTITLJTL- nsaK-ja«>.

Fig. 54

• T! WE QfR.TER.tNGH 5GM.F. K'i AH .• FED ; I' PJ RATION •

• THE'KNICKERBOOCER • TRVST-GOAPANY-

• OC8 3W5T 8 5W3VB;

Fig. 55.

102 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

side vestibule, with an interesting arrangement of the ingle-nook and
fireplace, and seats each side.

Fig. F shows another arrangement of circular staircase differing
from that shown in Fig. A, as it contains space for a service elevator
or lift.

Fig. G shows a scissors staircase, which is sometimes used in
double houses occupied by different families on each floor. This con-
struction makes a saving of space, as the staircases may be placed un-
der each other, while each family is able to go from floor to floor by its
own private staircase. This arrangement is also sometimes used in
schoolhouses, where there is height enough to have mezzanine toilet
rooms at the landings, with separate stairways for boys and girls in the
same given space on plan.

Fig. H shows an arrangement for the fireplace between dining
room and living room where space is desired for closets or serving room
between. On one side is built the ordinary fireplace with seats on
each side, the tiling being carried out to the end of the seats; on the
other side the hearth is carried out with brick floor, and the hood is
carried out over this so that a basket of coals can be set directly on the
brick floor. Sornetimes the fire-basket is placed below the floor level,
so that the surface comes about on a level with the floor.

Figs. 52 to 55 show working drawings of prominent architectural
firms. It should be noted how carefully and clearly everything is
drawn — from the lettering to the sculptured parts.

The preliminaries to starting a drawing, are :

Stretch half a sheet of Whatman's Imperial cold-pressed paper,
22 by 15 inches in size. While this is drying, sketch out rapidly with
pencil, T-square, and triangles, on a piece of manila detail paper, the
main lines of the proposed drawing. This will show the proper pla-
cing of the drawing, and save much erasing on the final sheet.

Sometimes tracing paper may be mounted over the Whatman's
paper, and a place cut for making the final drawing; or the study may
be made directly on the tracing paper over the final sheet, and then
cut out and redrawn or transferred.

The paper required for the first drawing is, therefore:

One sheet Whatman's "Imperial" drawing paper.

One yard manila detail paper.

Several yards of Rowney's English tracing paper.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

ON THE SUBJECT OF

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING.

PART II.

1. What is the meaning of composition in architectural design?
What are some of the first principles of good composition?

2. WThy should a draftsman study to cultivate his artistic taste?

3. What two meanings has the term "scale"? When is a
drawing large in scale? What affects the scale of a building? IJow
can a drawing be tested for scale? Why should ornament at the top
of a building be of a different size than at the bottom?

4. What should we do to the small scale drawings when any
change is made in the ornament?. What is likely to- be the result of
overlooking this precaution?

5. In planning a dwelling, what is a good principle for number
and size of rooms?

6. What should we avoid in the hall of houses for cold climates?

7. Give a rule for proportioning stair riser to tread.

8. Suggest a good way to avoid draughts in the sitting room.

9. Toward what point of the compass should be the exposure
of the dining room, and why? .

10. Describe some of the features of a butler's pantry.

11. What should be the exposure of the kitchen?

12. Where should the refrigerator be placed?

13. Describe several other rooms that must be considered in
house-planning.

14. Make a set of one-eighth inch scale sketches of the house
shown in Figs. 29, 30, 32 and 33, as described on page 61, plans to
be in ink, elevations to be in pencil.

15. What is meant by the term "working drawings"?

16. What are the customary scales used in America?

361

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

17. Draw from memory guide squares showing indications of
material as shown on plans, sections and elevations.

18. Describe the usual methods of letting a contract.

19. State briefly the general requirements for an office building.

20. At a scale of \ inch = 1 foot, lay out in pencil on brown paper,
the plans shown on Figs. 28/29, 30, 31, 32, 33, and, at a scale of £
inch = 1 foot, Fig. 34.

21. Trace the first and second floor plans which you have drawn
on tracing paper in ink, and also the front elevation.

22. Put thin bond or tracing paper over the drawings you have
made and lay out in pencil the framing plans as shown in Figs. 35, 36,
37, 38, 39, and 40.

23. Ink in the framing plans of the first floor and of the front
elevation.

24. L3!y out in pencil, at a scale of 1| inches = 1 foot, the details
shown on Fig. 41, comparing the mouldings with larger size draw-
ings of window frames, etc., given elsewhere.

25. Lay out in pencil from memory on detail paper a full size
detail of the window frame shown in Fig. 45. Then without chang-
ing this first drawing, take a sheet of tracing paper, put it over your
drawing, and draw out the corrections (if you have made any mis-
takes), or make a complete corrected copy.

26. Lay out a 1^ inch scale detail of the porch cornice as shown
in Fig. 48 in pencil on detail paper.

Internet Archive Audio

Featured

Top

Images

Featured

Top

Software

Featured

Top

Texts

Featured

Top

Video

Featured

Top

Mobile Apps

Browser Extensions

Archive-It Subscription

Save Page Now

Full text of "Cyclopedia of architecture, carpentry and building; a general reference work.."

See other formats